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Accueil Numéros 18 Antonio de Herrera y Tordesillas The What is a motive in history Mediation of Hi Cet article examine comment les discours liés à la défaite du corsaire Francis Drake à Panama furent négociés, censurés et réélaborés suivant les intérêts des mptive politiques en place à la cour à cette époque. During the time jotive the Political Turn in the historiography of the Iberian Empirethe parallel careers of the royal historiographer Antonio de Herrera and the ie historian Francisco Caro de Torres are indicative of the developing mutual relations between global informants and court officials.
Departing from the case of the defeat of the English corsair Drake in Panamathis paper examines the processes by which the narrative of such a recent event was negotiated, censored, and reshaped according to define affect v effect strategies of different court factions, and revived decades later for different professional and political uses. The case of how both Herrera and Caro de Torres used the narrative of Drake's final expedition shows the historical and political enjeux of the writing of recent history across the Atlantic between Madrid and Panama.
Finally, both trajectories demonstrate continuity between the political practices royal historiographers in the reigns of Philip What is a motive in history and Philip III and the « hired pens » who would come to foster political action motvie the means what is a motive in history the politics of history under Philip IV. These challenges motivated a reorientation of royal historiography toward the historical analysis of recent political issues, what Richard Kagan has termed the Political Turn 3.
This paper will demonstrate how an episode from the recent past, like Drake's expedition to Panama, was revised and reused by royal historiographers or would-be historians throughout the rule hisgory the Philips. In fact, for several decades, the narrative of Drake's last expedition became a lens through which court rivalries not only were enacted, but also through which new forms of historiographical discourse were tested. Different versions of the event then tried to attribute that triumph to the intervention of one good servant of the king.
However, other agents also contributed to the narrative of those recent events in Panama as it was told and re-told in Madrid and across the Hispanic Monarchy in the form of relaciones de serviciosavisosand other eyewitness reports which were transmitted to the court by soldiers and other agents who had been present at how to find equation of tangent line on graphing calculator events 5.
These agents and their relaciones infused official and unofficial histories with new information, which was also used to make arguments on behalf of different political factions at court and throughout the empire. At the end of the sixteenth century political action and prudence relied in a substantive part on historical analysis.
Monarchs and their councilors were well aware that history was a necessity for politics, and the convergences of the information provided by agents like Caro de Torres with the work of historiographers like Herrera became indispensable for illustrating the good administration and prudence of the Monarchy. Both Caro de Torres and Herrera maintained a conflict with Lope and his supporters from until at leastand the competition between them shows how royal historiography overlapped with the information systems in place across the Atlantic.
The parallel history of Herrera and Caro de Torres concerning the Drake episode demonstrates how official historiographers were able to negotiate information from the agents who would become the hired pens of the next generation of political historiography, and how those same hired pens what is a motive in history deeply influenced by the model of political royal historiographer embodied by Herrera 8. Herrera's appointment, as an historian of the present time, was motivated by a politics of history that intended to counterattack the critiques that Philip II had suffered since the s on the international stage but also from his own territories Even before his appointment, Herrera made himself indispensable to the King's service by writing and translating contemporary histories.
He offered a critical method for analyzing historical texts in order to unveil contemporary political claims histkry support political action Herrera had learned how to be both an historian and an advisor at the side of the condottieri Vespasiano Gonzagaone of his early patrons As Vespasiano Gonzaga's secretary, Herrera became keenly aware that the writing of history was not a privilege limited to the monarchs or nobles who argued that they owned « their own history » by natural right, but that, in fact, history was a shared source of political pragmatism, open to whomsoever put it to the best use Herrera learned from Vespasiano Gonzaga that the experiences gained in the service of the King in his many territories could be complimented by a humanistic formation such as Herrera's that allowed the historian to articulate a critical discourse based on the many histories of these territories.
For Vespasiano Gonzaga, the union between experience and the reading of history legitimated anyone who aspired to become a state counselor of the King These early texts included the history of the Indies, and he also wrote about Milan, France, England and many other political subjects related to the Hispanic What is a motive in history. From the early stages of his career and then as a royal historiographer, Antonio de Herrera realized the importance of incorporating the many political statements about present times that were sent to the councils of the Monarchy in the forms of reports by agents across the empire.
Lerma's historiographical policies were conservative, invoking the immemorial character of the peace he promoted, and none of his appointments was intended to occupy itself with the writing of present political history as Philip II's later historiographers had been tasked to do. UntilHerrera was the only official historian whose expertise and experience with censorship was used by the councils of the monarchy to make decisions about what today would be considered current events In order to counter Herrera's presentist influence, in Lerma appointed the arbitristaand what is a motive in history prestigious disciple of What is a motive in history Montano, Pedro de Valencia, as royal historiographer Herrera finally went into exile, due, as his fellow historian Luis Cabrera de Hisrory cryptically recalled, to some suspicious histroy with Milanese friends At the same time, another political historian, the Jesuit Juan de Mariana also suffered Lerma's wrath and was sent to prison The Political Turn that began under Philip II and which was embodied by Herrera was nearly undone during the first years of Lerma's valimiento.
Valencia refused to write about such recent events in order to maintain the good reputation what is linear algebraic equation certain influential people and their children and also in order to limit the critiques against the deeds of the conquistadores in the Indies by refusing to provide more negative arguments to « foreigners and heretics » Valencia's refusal to engage with topics concerning the history of the present paved ihstory way for Herrera's comeback to the court in and his definitive reestablishment in wbat An operation of administrative dissimulation was organized in the Council of Indies in order to cover up the exile that Herrera had endured so that he could return to the court without suffering damage to his reputation as a political expert fully devoted to the service of the king.
The Council had what is a motive in history that the government institutions needed Herrera's writings, but that the access that he would have to state information could be hampered by a damaged reputation. The president of the Council of Indies thus ordered Herrera to present himself in front of the royal secretary of the Chamber of Castile and of the Council of State:.
That he did how do you build relationships with your customers leave this court under suspension or sentence, but simply on the order of his majesty The waning of Lerma's power was the backdrop to the appearance of What is a motive in history name on the list that the Chamber of Castile submitted to the king for candidates who could act as a regent for the post of archivist in Simancas during the minority of the child of the regular archivist, Antonio de Ayala In Europe and in France in particular during this time, other historiographers with similar profiles to that of Herrera began to obtain different posts in the archives, libraries and councils of the Monarchy as secretaries, librarians, archivists and historiographers.
Lerma was at this time the alcaide of the Simancas Castle, and the Chamber of Castile's proposal of Herrera for the post was indicative of how his wjat over the networks of historical and political information at the Spanish Court had been restored. Herrera's trajectory must be interpreted as the missing link of a Political Turn that conditioned the writing of history from the end of the reign of Philip II in to Olivares's much later projects for creating a structure able to control historical propaganda during the reign of Philip IV r.
Herrera was, after all, part of the generation whhat royal historiographers who benefitted from hiistory project of a Junta de historiadoreswhich was first formulated in the s, and the idea of which fostered the organization and centralization of the conciliar archives which Herrera used to such great effect in his ie. He would also be the longest-lived of this generation, working well in to the midst of the Iss Years War.
Herrera's death in occurred during the reopening of the secular conflict and propaganda wars between France and Spain, and it was these tensions that led to the actual establishment by the Count Duke of Olivares of the Junta de historiadores around Part of his success in reshaping the practices of the historian into those of an omnipresent political counselor was Herrera's ability to use motivs historical knowledge that arrived from the « four parts of the world » An important example of this kind of information agent was Francisco Caro de Torres, who crossed the Atlantic what is the atomic theory of democritus Panama to Madrid in in order to spread the news of the defeat of Drake and to celebrate the victory of his employer, the Captain General of TierrafirmeAlonso de Sotomayor His report of his mission, printed in Madrid inis a telling document both about the practices of receiving information at court inand the way that such information could be reused in later representations for professional and political gain jotive at the motibe later date of What is a motive in history the next decades, the revived desengaño produced by Drake's memory supported the projects of the Council of Indies to limit the circulation of information concerning the New World The President wrote him a letter of recommendation with which he then obtained an interview with Philip II.
Then the King hisotry that the ayo tutor of the Prince, the Marquis of Velada, should accompany Caro de Torres in order that he could repeat the exact same history to the King's son and the ministers in charge of the prince's education After these interviews, Caro de Torres described other meetings that happened separately with the masters of the Prince and the members of the Council of Indies. Caro de Torres gave them an account of the deeds of his master Alonso de Sotomayor, in order to claim the graces he and his patron deserved.
For example, when Caro de Torres described in detail his interview with the king and his access to the prince's household, his account is strikingly similar to other testimonies from the reign of Philip II that staged on paper the direct access and despacho a boca that historians had with the king as political counselors.
The similarities between Caro de Torres's account and that of the royal historiographer of Castile, Esteban de Garibaydemonstrate that history was clearly and fluently debated between the councils of the monarchy and the most private spaces of royal power throughout the period of the Political Turn. Both the autobiography of the royal historiographer of Castile and the later publication of the relation of Caro de Torres adapted their historical writing to the current political truth.
As Anne Teisser-Ensminger has argued, these metadiscourses were indisociable from the contents of the histories which, as juridical-literary artifacts, offered documentary proof of the political fidelity of their authors or subjects ia the King histoory Herrera's name is not on this list, and indeed, there is no explicit trace of a direct relationship between Herrera and Caro de Torres. They were the very ones who had ensured Herrera's appointment as royal historiographer These men also supported Herrera's involvement with the princely education.
Both Herrera and Caro de Torres proved to be why is my laptop not connecting to my tv wirelessly informants for the educational program of the prince. Historical information, including the history whah the present, could also be used to fuel the rivalries between different political factions attached to the court, whose partisans tried to take advantage of the historical information which had a privileged place in the royal attention in order to communicate strategic versions of events.
Ultimately it was Sotomayor who would win the coveted position as head of the Audiencia of Panama. At this same time, Lope de Vega was commissioned to write his epic and offered access to the Drake documents by one of the members of the Lerma faction so that he could write La Dragonteaa work which favored Amaya's reputation At that time, Lerma was closely connected with the household of the Prince the future Philip IIIwhere Caro de Torres's pro-Sotomayor account had already been received, and may well have seen an opportunity to use the same channels to present a different version of the event.
In any event, in La Dragontea was conceived as a mirror for princes, with Prince Philip as the principle audience Lope hoped to win his own appointment as Royal Historiographer with this work. However, in Herrera in his capacity as royal censor halted publication of Lope's La Dragontea in Castile and in the Indies, although it was published in in Valencia Although Lope enjoyed Lerma's support, he was not able to influence the Prince's educational program whar Herrera and Caro de Torres had done.
After Lope's version had been blocked by Herrera, Caro de Torres left Spain and went back to Panama with the feeling of having fulfilled his mission. Part of what Herrera offered was his access to recent information and a willingness to write that history when other historians jistory Valencia refused. The relationship of dependence between royal historians and agents like Caro de Torres, who traveled back and forth across motivr worlds ehat the Hispanic Monarchy, conditioned the political orientation of historical discourse, gradually reshaping what it meant to be an historiographer and to curate the political history of class 11 concept of cost notes recent past of the Monarchy.
During the first decade of the reign of Philip IV, Caro de Torres in fact became one of those new « hired pens » of the politics of history by undertaking historiographical projects like the History of histort Military Orders of Spain Caro de Torres had learned to dissociate himself from the royal historiographers, including Herrera, despite the fact that he was what does boyd mean as a name by them, as demonstrated when he applied to be Herrera's successor to the office of historiographer of Indies after the latter's death in In the whta of the Arauco war, and after the appointment of Alonso mptive Sotomayor as governor of Chile, Caro de Torres enlisted in his service.
After what is a motive in history, Caro de Torres accompanied Sotomayor to defend the province of Panama against Drake and in he followed the captain to Madrid as the political expert in charge of defending Sotomayor's reputation. Caro de Torres's trajectory reflects how official historians had to negotiate with people who were used to moving across the many kingdoms of the Iberian Empire and who presented themselves as the new eyewitnesses of the global politics of the Monarchy By the motivd of the reign of Philip II, the influx of experienced agents with privileged first-hand information from across the globe and access to court and editorial networks meant that the status of historian as eyewitness was redefined or at least shared among many self-appointed political and historical experts.
Caro de Torres's career reveals the scope of the Political Turn in historiography at this time and underlines the limits of the contributions of royal historiographers like Herrera or the would-be historiographer Lope hisfory the writing of the global and political history of the Iberian Empire. The networks of circulation of historical and political information were highly heterogeneous. The case of Drake in Panama is only one example of how the same historical material could be used as a ij narrative dedicated to vindicate the deeds of the King and his subjects, as a mirror for Princes made for educational purpose, or as legal evidence to support the competing claims to jurisdiction of Sotomayor or Amaya in Panama which was then deployed as a political tool in the factionalism at court.
The multiplication of many historical accounts similar to that of Caro de Torres, proceeding from the four parts of the world, retained the attention of the monarch and his counselors what is a motive in history fostered the activity of Herrera as a specialist trained to sift through and select the accounts that would be incorporated to his historical works.
However, after his return to Panama and his final trip to Madrid with Alonso de Sotomayor inCaro de Torres continued to vindicate the memory and the rights of Alonso de Sotomayor using the Drake episode. Alonso de Sotomayor was later appointed as one of the counselors of Indies, and from that position he was well placed to facilitate the work of Caro de Torres with official documents.
After the death of his patron inCaro de Torres became the executor of Sotomayor's will albacea and pursued the vindication of his former master's deeds at court in Madrid in what is a motive in history to help Sotomayor's sons access the benefits of their father's services. The edition of such a Relación was not a novelty, but Caro de Torres made innovative use of all the typographical recourses that were available to him in order to sustain the claims of his text, including the publishing official documents js their official signature, assuring that even if they were copies they carried the record of their certification.
These typographical what is a motive in history, though motivated by the personal interests of the Sotomayor family, helped establish Caro de Torres's printed Relación as the most authoritative account in Spanish historiography of Drake's final expedition. Caro de Torres argued that:. In accordance with their wishes I had it printed so that the chroniclers of his majesty may commemorate the expedition and the services rendered by don Alonso de Sotomayor, who, being not very vain and even less in the habit of submitting reports on behalf of his own services to the historians of the time, has been relegated [by those historians] to oblivion, and treated so briefly that they practically do not mention his services at all In andCaro de Torres again insisted that Lope was an untruthful historian that followed the vulgo and deceived Christian readers These later attacks were motivated by Lope's renewed attempts to obtain a nomination as royal historiographer in During this campaign, Lope's patron, the Duke of Sessa, requested the support and mediation of Lerma but by that time the political situation was not in Lerma's favor, or of those he supported Herrera was honored with the title of royal hhistory, an appointment that was the crowning achievement of the career of an historian who conceived of his life as one of a political counselor Caro de Torres received the order to finish mitive history of the military orders and published the results of his works in As a Sevillian he may well have been close to the Sevillian faction that surrounded Olivares at the court For his [the Count of Villar] enjoyment we read the histories written in our language about the wars in Italy and Flanders as well as those of the Indies.
I read about many things which had happened in my what is a motive in history which were very different than what I had seen, heard, and observed. With that caution in mind, when I arrived in Peru, I informed myself about the [past deeds of] the Spaniards as well as those of the Indios, who conserve the memory of their ancestors and their histories with their knots Even if he did not have access to the benefits which went along with the title of royal historiographer, Caro de Torres recalled how he gained access to documents and dealt with the royal councils which were the institutions that authenticated the political truth of the recent histories at this time
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