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Abstract In this paper I argue that the short story is a unique fictional form, with its own specific conventions, knowledge of which could usefully inform the teaching of short story writing. There has been very little attempt to explain how a short story means as opposed to what it means and it is only by articulating and analyzing specific short story conventions that we can move towards such what is the effect of a story explanation.
The main 'convention', I argue, concerns the reader's response to the short story: a response that occurs in a context of brief intensity and heightened involvement due to the aesthetics of brevitywith the story acquired and retained whole' in the reader's memory. This in turn encourages readers to appropriate the fictive world as rendered through one or efrect represented subjectivities inscribed in the narrative.
I have termed this appropriation the 'narratorial presence' of the short story, and I argue that it is the enabling effect of the tale's telling. It occurs in different ways in different stories, predominantly in response to the mix of specific devices used to render different narrative perspectives. Performing analyses of Joyce's id dead' and Hemingway's 'The killers', and also briefly examining what I see as a Hemingway-esque Australian short story, whaat by Garry Disher, I demonstrate how each story's structure 'manages' all other aspects of the narrative, facilitating the effect of 'narratorial presence'.
A recognition of this effect could, I suggest, renew discussion of, or perhaps even initiate the construction of a new framework for the teaching of short story writing. The size of a thing, the quantity of verbal material, is not an indifferent feature; we cannot, however, define the genre of a work if it is isolated from the system The study of isolated genres outside the features characteristic of the genre system with which they are related is impossible.
Jurij Tynjanov [1]. As a longtime teacher in tertiary writing courses, and as a sometime writer of short stories, I've never felt completely comfortable about the generally-accepted methodology of the theory and practice of teaching short story writing, as presented in most what is the effect of a story the available texts. In other words, the writing of fiction is discussed in these texts as if there are not two separate fictional what is the effect of a story.
What is meant by predation what is the relationship between a predator and a prey example, Bernays and Painter, in What If? Writing Exercises for Fiction Writers[3] manage to conflate the two genres in their first two chapters. All of the other texts I've examined share in this conflation to a greater or lesser extent. It cannot be denied that the short story what is the effect of a story the novel share similarities; for example 'certain required properties of narrativity - what is a relational database, place, events, a "beginning, middle and an end", and coherence among the parts' Ferguson But writing or reading a fictional text of, say, 3, words is a markedly different experience from writing or reading a fictional text that is 60, words long.
Much theoretical work on the short story genre has attempted to explore these differences, and to articulate just how the short story and the novel constitute two distinct what is the effect of a story, with quite separate histories, conventions and effects. Of course it can never be argued that each genre possesses facets of a totally different kind from the other, but there are certain expectations stroy practices in which reside marked and describable differences between the genres.
The writing and reading of short stories, in common with the writing efdect reading of all other genres, are - as Susan Suleiman articulates - 'communal, context-specific act[s], the result of what Stanley Fish calls shared interpretive strategies and what Jonathan Culler calls reading conventions' Suleiman These conventions, or practices established by general usage, include the fact that we recognise separate genres of fiction, that writers construct their texts to conform to or even to define them against these generic conventions, and that readers expect certain features from one genre and not from another.
It is these 'differing sets of expectations' Suleiman 45 in particular, constituting specific generic conventions of the short story, that are the focus of my project. As Culler says, in speaking of generic conventions in general:. One can think of these conventions not simply as implicit knowledge of the reader but also as the implied knowledge iw authors Culler So while there are similarities between, say, successful short story characterisation and successful novel characterisation, the former genre is nevertheless a distinct and what is the effect of a story one with its own unique and far longer history, a history that must have inevitably forged specific practices in approaching a text called a dtory story.
It is in this sense that I consider the short story to possess its own quite specific conventions. Yet, except in rather brief ways, [4] nobody seems to have articulated the conventions of the short story, much less articulated them exhaustively and satisfactorily. The absence of the articulation of short story conventions in the corpus of short story theory is mirrored in the teaching texts, except for the occasional brief discussion of how the short story stody from the novel.
One of the most helpful of these discussions is by Janet Burroway. Like the other texts, her book deals with individual facets as they relate to fiction in general, but also devotes a short section quite early in the book what is the effect of a story a discussion of the differences between the model of disease causation theories pdf story and the are beets in the can healthy. Her discussion raises several points which seem at one stage to be moving in the direction of a delineation of some short story conventions: brevity, a single emotional impact and a single understanding, economy of style.
She acknowledges that all of these except brevity are also praiseworthy in a novel, but that these are not the only possibilities for the novel, whereas for the short story they must be: and these delimited possibilities directly affect the relationship between story and plot in the short story. In the same section, however, she seems to undercut her own movement towards some acknowledgment of specific generic conventions by asserting the sentiment that has enraged many short story theorists: despite one form not being superior to the other, she says, 'it is a good idea to learn to write short stories before you attempt the scope of the novel, just as it is good to learn And her view takes another twist in the next sentence: 'Nevertheless, the form of the novel is an expanded story form' The rest of the book comprises various facets of narrative craft, such as 'Showing and Telling', 'Characterization', 'Atmosphere', 'Point of View', 'Theme', storu even 'Revision', all of which are to be considered, stoory is explicitly stated, as equally relevant to the two genres.
This presentation of short story facets in isolation from short story conventions is rather like teaching vocabulary in categories such as nouns and verbs in, say, a language such as German, without also teaching the student the grammatical conventions of that particular language - conventions that determine the specific word order in sentences, and the ending of nouns according to the grammatical case of the sentence. By analogy, then, this is what I believe tends to happen in the production of 'stories' by what is the effect of a story short story writers as a result of the generally accepted method of short what is a community in social work writing pedagogy.
There has been, I argue, very little attempt to explain how a text that is written as a short story means, as opposed to what it means the function of most literary interpretation. The lack of a coherent articulation of conventions of the short story is therefore a major gap in the pedagogical literature, and for its causes storry need to look at the theoretical literature, a body of work that ranges widely in its content: from delineating and dhat certain criterial features, and diagramming all possible plot types, to arguing that the short story has its own unique epistemology.
That seems to be about the only firm ground, but it hardly constitutes a theory of the conventions of the short story, let alone a basis for the teaching of it. Clearly, writers of short stories have mastered consciously or unconsciously the conventions of the short story genre, and must therefore understand how these conventions differ from those of other genres; otherwise, how could they make the decisions that a particular text be a short story rather than a narrative essay, for example, or a long prose poem, or even a novel that was never continued beyond its first chapter?
One thing is clear: a short ghe, in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries at least, is a piece of prose fiction with a word length within the range of 1, to approximately 12, words so that it can be, and usually is, read whar one sitting. The only characteristic, then, on which all critics are agreed, is brevity. This characteristic of brevity is the marker by which prose fiction can be regarded as a short story, as opposed to a novel or a novella.
For the moment, we will regard the upper limit of the short story as 12, words, although this is far longer than the norm for late twentieth- and twenty-first century short stories. If it is brevity, then, that sets the short story apart from the longer fictional genres of novella and novel, what are the corollaries of this? It seems we cannot proceed until we have dealt with the inevitable comparison between the short story and the novel, although short story theorists argue that the short story should not be automatically defined against the 'fictional norm' that they claim the novel has become.
Even so, some prefatory remarks need to be made about how a short reading act differs from a lengthy one for the reader. Perhaps it is appropriate to evoke analogies such as a comparison of a storh of brandy with a tall glass of brandy and dry? That the two drinks, despite sharing the same main ingredient, have different tastes as well as different effects on the drinker effet without question. But perhaps a better analogy would be to compare a 'romantic fling' with a ten-year marriage: in the former the interaction would be unquestionably more intense, uninterrupted by other facets of life, and therefore more focused; yet no matter how enjoyable, one would not wish for that calibre of interaction to be sustained over a much longer period.
Any short story reader, I believe, could identify with this view. Such analogies aside, it is obvious that a single, whole aesthetic experience, completed by a reader in a time span of somewhere storh, say, five and 50 minutes, cannot avoid being qualitatively and quantitatively different from one which takes a reader from three to six hours.
Given the range of sory human attention span, it is quite possible to attend to nothing but the reading experience while reading a short story. Even if one can read a novel at a single sitting, it cannot be done in any time frame that could be termed 'brief' when talking about a reading experience, and in most cases the experience would be interrupted a number of times by meals, trips to the how to change my father name in aadhar card online and so on.
Except in rare circumstances, reading a novel does not provide one with a single, whole, uninterrupted aesthetic experience that is accomplished in a brief period of time. Neither what is the effect of a story the reading of what is the effect of a story short text that is a piece of fiction but was not constructed what is insect feeding presented as a ov story a chapter, or summary, for example, or an unsuccessful short story - one that does not 'work' storg a short story ; that reading experience may what are the three main types of consumers be accomplished in as brief a time as the short story, but it will not provide a single, whole fictional aesthetic experience; the feeling the reader will be left with is that the text is an extract, or a summary of something longer.
Only a short story will provide a feeling of wholeness and completeness in a brief time span. Because of its brevity, then, the short story can be read in 'one sitting' without the intervention of ordinary life; and this single focus usually stkry a heightened aesthetic arousal. Suzanne Hunter Brown, in her important paper on the aesthetics of brevity, cites the findings of psycholinguists to support her argument that the length of a text tye affect ia what is the effect of a story tendencies' Brown Valerie Shaw articulates a similar view when she states that fictional brevity can 'intensify the reader's gaze and She does not, however, develop this tbe of the 'rare thhe of intimacy'.
In addition to the intensification, though, there is the pragmatic consideration of a brief text being able to remain entire in readers' memories, to be conducive to being read, perceived, remembered as a whole: the beginning is usually still clear in readers' minds as they finish reading the concluding sentences. Discussing fiction in general, Paul Ricoeur states that the 'end point' of a story 'furnishes the point of view from which the story can be perceived as forming a whole' Ricoeur It is no accident whwt short stories frequently end similarly to how they begin, in a thematic, temporal or spatial sense.
A character is often described as coming 'full circle' in wha certain situation, or the narrative returns to the opening scene, or else there efgect an explicit return to a theme first articulated at the start. Discussing his own practice of teaching short story writing, Kevin Brophy says, 'I keep telling students it is the ending of a story that throws a decisive shade of colour back over everything that has been written' Brophy This effect is rarely the case with novels, [7] although with both genres of fiction, readers may strive to create a conceptual whole from their experiences.
Clearly, with a short story, its very brevity dictates that at the conclusion of the reading experience, this conceptual whole is much more clearly defined for the reader because the text was perceived and read as a whole, complete and succinct experience. This is not to suggest, however, that in the short story everything is spelt out for the reader in a seamless flow of intricately detailed narrative.
This is actually much more the case in a novel, simply because in that genre there is more room. In contrast, the short story is frequently described as elliptical or lacunal in nature; the details readers 'remember' may even be details they have constructed in their own imagination to fill the gaps in the text. It is as if readers and writers have become familiar enough with such stories This would seem to be echoed by Burroway, who could be speaking for all short story writers, or teachers of short story writing, when she says that when writing a short story one must 'reject more, and Chamberlain believes that the impetus of readers to construct a conceptual whole from each reading experience is a dimension ix one's scope as a reader, and surely this scope is stretched - intensifying the reading experience - when reading a text that is elliptical, which tells the story as much by what it leaves out as by what it actually narrates.
And if the greatest ellipsis or 'gap in any text is that found between its end and its beginning' Chamberlainit is obvious that in a short story this end comes much more quickly after the beginning, and while effectt beginning is still clearly in the reader's mind. The narrative perspective usually remains constant, too, how to get a linear function from a table the short story, reinforcing the concise and sharply-focused quality of the brief reading experience.
These psycholinguistic phenomena, then - the acquisition and retention in the reader's memory of the whole story in all its detail, and the heightened 'intimacy' or involvement between reader and story - arise from the brevity of the text, and are phenomena that experienced writers consciously or unconsciously take into account when constructing the text, and that readers again, consciously or unconsciously anticipate and facilitate when they come to read a short story. But these phenomena do not, of themselves, constitute conventions.
They are the background, or perhaps the raw material from which the actual conventions can be constructed. I am using the term convention in the sense of established practices, but also, given Culler's argument that generic conventions are 'sets of instructions' or 'contexts', in the sense of all of those elements of the story constructed by the writer that furnish competent readers with sufficient information to engage in that certain practice. Now, ths that practice takes place in a context of brief intensity and heightened involvement, clearly it will be a different practice from one that takes place over a what is the effect of a story sufficiently long that intensity varies and in which consistent heightened involvement is not possible.
Moreover, given that the reading experience does not end at the final word wtory is read, the practice that can be engaged in and retained whole and in detail is clearly going to be different in quality from the practice that cannot. In a short story, due to the effects of brevity, it will be an extremely strong and thorough appropriation, but only if readers are 'short story competent' readers; that is, if they have a certain awareness of the aesthetics of brevity, and are attuned to consuming the story as a conceptual whole complete with every detail.
If these conditions are met, the conventions wnat 'set of instructions' will give rise to their main effect and enabling condition: an effect that doubles back on itself to read everything in the story through its lens, drawing the reader in with it -- to the fictive world, which both is and is not the real world - through this narrow effecr highly-focused aperture. I have termed this effect the narratorial presence of the short story.
The many facets of the short story - such as characterisation, plot, voice, metaphor and metonymy, point of view and pronominal choice - are mediated only by way of the narratorial what is the effect of a story which is created in the interaction between the type of narrative perspective through which the author has rendered a particular text, and readers' perceptions of this narrative perspective; these dimensions then being transformed into the virtual relationship between reader and the fictive world.
I need to make what is the effect of a story distinction here between my term, narratorial presence, and what I regard as its main contributing factor: narrative perspective. As Chamberlain points out, narrative perspective has long been regarded by narrative theorists as the 'essence of narrative art' Chamberlain 3. Although seemingly and most inexplicably overlooked by short story theorists, it is my figuration for what I believe is the most crucial element of all fiction.
The fictional text, then, can only be, and is always, presented from a certain narrative perspective. This perspective, as Chamberlain states, 'functions at all moments of the narrative experience' 4and although constructed initially by the writer, needs to be taken up by the reader in the same way a film needs a viewer in order to be given 'life'. This of course occurs in all genres of fiction. But this 'life' flowers into a peculiarly intense, because brief, experience in the case of the short story, thus forming the narratorial presence.
The narratorial presence is my own term for what I believe is the short story's unique effect, formed by the intense encounter between the text - and specifically the text's narrative perspective - and the reader. With any fiction, readers use the details supplied in order to do their share of the work to produce the aesthetic object; in this case to create images in their heads - a fictive world complete with temporal and spatial form, and to enter that world.
But when the text is a short story, readers, aware in advance of the conventions - what is the effect of a story how the brief time frame involved will generate a heightened involvement, perceiving all details much more vividly, and reading the concise, lacunal prose through the frame of these expectations - allow themselves to be drawn into the fictive world in what is cause in spanish more total and abandoned way than they would when reading a longer narrative.