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Right y-axis represents anchorage effect. The line shows the current Chilean annual standard for fine particles. Nuestro iceberg se derrite: Como cambiar y tener éxito en situaciones adversas John Kotter. In order to get air quality in all areas of the region to healthy levels, policy makers may need to consider local pollution control measures in fefects areas with the highest concentrations. Her research interests are applied microeconomics, development economics, and environmental economics. Similarly, should we expect a similar effect among populations with such differences in exposure pattern, susceptible groups, disease cofactors and competing risks of death?

Particulate air pollution and daily mortality: Can results be generalized to Latin American countries? Recently, a series of reports, based on ecological analyses of routinely collected data, have shown positive associations between measures of particle concentration and daily mortality counts in various cities of the US and Europe. Material and methods. We reviewed examples of effects of air pollution process of generalization of these results to Latin American countries addressing possible differences in air pollution mixtures, exposure profiles, and population susceptibility.

A limitation to the process of generalization is the lack of a well-established biological mechanism by which particles may act on daily mortality. Also, sources and levels of ambient air pollution as well as population characteristics and habits vary widely between Northern communities of Europe examples of effects of air pollution the US, and Latin American countries, which impairs the process of generalization.

However, results of studies conducted in Latin American countries suggest a similar effect to that observed in Northern countries of Europe and the US. Despite uncertainty about the mechanism, there is sufficient evidence that particles are harmful for health. Control measures of particle emission are urgently needed in Latin American countries. Given the potential of misclassification of exposure, the dose-response relationship observed in Northern Europe and the US may not be adequate for Latin American populations.

There is a need for a new generation of epidemiological studies including a specific assessment of exposure to fine particles and of events surrounding death. Material y métodos. Se revisaron los procesos de generalización de los resultados a América Latina con énfasis en posibles diferencias en las mezclas de contaminantes, perfiles de exposición y susceptibilidad de las poblaciones. Una limitante del proceso de generalización es la falta de un mecanismo biológico bien establecido por el cual las partículas pueden actuar sobre la mortalidad diaria.

Sin embargo, los resultados de los estudios llevados a cabo en América Latina sugieren un efecto similar al observado en los países occidentales. A pesar de las incertidumbres en el mecanismo, existe suficiente evidencia de que las partículas son nocivas para la salud y se requiere urgentemente de medidas de control de emisiones en los países latinoamericanos. Debido al potencial problema de inadecuada medición de la exposición, la relación de dosis-respuesta observada en países del norte puede no ser adecuada para las poblaciones latinoamericanas.

Existe la necesidad de una nueva generación de estudios epidemiológicos incluyendo una evaluación de exposición específica a partículas finas en la fracción respirable y de los eventos ocurridos alrededor de la muerte. Earlier in the twentieth century, a series of episodes of excess mortality occurring concomitantly to extremely high levels of air pollution produced by fossil fuel combustion documented that air pollution can cause death.

Air pollution was not widely viewed as an important cause of morbidity and mortality. Although most of the new evidence of the relation between particulate matter and mortality is based on ecological data, two recent reports based on longitudinal data 6,7 have observed an increase in mortality among subjects residing in cities with higher fine particle air pollution levels. In Latin America, particle levels still exceed the standards in many urban areas.

This windows 10 cannot map network drive important for risk evaluation and priorization of pollution control measures, especially given their large economic cost. This paper discusses different issues that need to be considered in the generalization process and the importance of such an attempt at the public health level. Based on the epidemiological definition of generalization, 9 relevant issues to consider in the relation between particulate pollution PM and daily mortality are: the identification of agent s responsible for such an association and its biological mechanism, the conditions of exposure to this agent, and the characterization of susceptible groups.

Therefore, in the process of generalization of this relation we need to analyze potential similarities or discordances between NC and LAC of three major factors: 1 air pollution mixtures, 2 exposure profiles, and 3 population characteristics. In this paper, we first present the scientific evidence of the relation of particle air pollution and mortality; then we discuss the role of the three previously mentioned major factors in the generalization process; finally, we present the results of studies conducted in Latin Examples of effects of air pollution, and conclude on examples of effects of air pollution implications of generalization of the results for governments of LAC.

Scientific evidence of the relationship between mortality and particles. Most of the scientific evidence of the relationship of PM and mortality is based on the consistency of the results of epidemiological studies across study locations, and coherence with other health endpoints. However, the biological mechanisms by which particulate air pollution causes mortality in relation to acute exposure is still unclear. The effect of inhaled particles seems to be determined by their physical properties, their sites of deposition, and their chemical composition.

Exposure to particulate air pollution can induce alveolar inflammation and exacerbate severe preexisting cardiac respiratory diseases, in particular ischemic heart diseases and chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases COPDleading eventually to the death of susceptible subjects. This is related to their high deposition efficiency examples of effects of air pollution the lower respiratory tract, their large number per unit mass, and their increased surface areas available for interaction with cells.

For this reason the most susceptible individuals are likely to be subjects with pre-existing chronic cardiovascular or free program to edit documents conditions. Recent studies have used various animal models of human cardiopulmonary diseases to demonstrate that impaired animals show increased sensitivity to inhalation of particles as do individuals with pre-existing diseases in exposed human population.

Other studies 15 have shown that rats with induced pulmonary hypertension PHTexposed for hour to residual oil fly ash ROFA an acid-metal rich emission source of particles PM that serves as a PM 2. Among rats with induced emphysema or lung fibrosis no enhancement was present. The composition of particles may also be an important element in the toxicity. Particles of both natural and anthropogenic origin examples of effects of air pollution include soluble metal salts and also contain metal complexes at the surface of an insoluble particle.

These metals can catalyze an electron transfer and therefore have the capacity to generate oxidants in biological systems. Thus, pulmonary effects of exposure to such particles may resemble those produced by oxidant gas including neutrophilic alveolitis, airway hyperactivity and increased virulence of pulmonary infection leading to enhanced mortality.

The concentration of soluble metals was the lowest in volcanic ash natural sourceintermediate in the ambient air sample and the highest in the oil fly ash. The ambient air sample and the oil fly ash increased mortality due to subsequent bacterial challenge in mice. Other acute rat toxicity studies 18 demonstrated examples of effects of air pollution the level of total soluble metals correlate with the degree of acute injury. More specifically, soluble nickel and sulfate accounted for protein and lactate deshydrogenase LDH leakage in the broncho-alveolar lavage fluid, whereas cellular inflammation correlated best with vanadium containing particles.

Rats with systemic hypertension were more severely impacted by this PM, but mortality did not occur. The biological plausibility of the relationship between PM and mortality is enhanced by the observation of the coherence of cardiopulmonary health effects in epidemiologic studies, examples of effects of air pollution by the fact that non-cardiopulmonary health effects are not typically associated with particulate pollution.

However, human toxicologic studies are sparse and fail to replicate ambient what is the standard error of the mean difference mixtures. There is a need for a better understanding of the mechanisms of injury including the identification of neurotransmitters such as cytokinesand of immune suppression.

The main factors that need to be considered to determine if a similar relation of mortality and PM, such as that observed in the NC, could be expected in LAC include: 1 the characteristics and chemical composition of particles and air mixture in different locations; 2 the assessment of the population exposure why wont my xbox connect to the internet wirelessly ambient and indoor air pollutants; 3 the differences in sociodemographic factors and the health status of the exposed population.

Characteristics of particles and air mixtures in different locations. Particulate matter in the air is a mixture of many subclasses of pollutants. The size and chemical composition depends on formation mechanisms, the atmospheric composition, and climatic variables. This variation may be observed within and between large cities, and between urban and rural areas.

The examples of effects of air pollution of total suspended particles TSP to particles less than 2. There is no available data on the major sources and composition of fine particles in Latin America. These data contrast with data from the US. Receptor modeling studies in the western United States have found that fugitive dust, motor vehicles, and wood smoke are the major contributors to ambient PM samples there, while results from eastern United States sites indicate that stationary combustion and fugitive dust are major contributors to ambient PM samples in the East.

Sulfate and organic carbon are the major secondary components in the Eastern, US while nitrates and organic carbon are the major secondary components in the West. A small fraction of this material is in the PM 2. Emission from combustion examples of effects of air pollution mobile and stationary sources, biomass burning are predominantly in the PM 2. Recent data from Mexico City have shown that samples of PM 10 from the northern part of the city, the focus of industrial activity, and central and southern areas where motor vehicles, pollen and examples of effects of air pollution are the main pollution sources, have a different composition.

Examples of effects of air pollution atmosphere is a complex mixture with other major air pollutants, unmeasured inorganic or organic compounds that could act in synergy with particles or be highly correlated with particles and be partly responsible for the health effects observed. For example, in Mexico City, the atmosphere presents substantial levels of particles, ozone and hydrocarbons in particular during the dry season winter22 whereas in Santiago particles are high and ozone low during the winter period.

Based on the large variability in the atmospheric composition, one would expect that the effect of PM on mortality would vary across cities with different atmospheric and climatic conditions, in particular when the emission source varies. Further analysis of the Philadelphia data, 2 suggests that the effect of particles varies according to the season due to a change in particle source contribution in summertime aerosols both sulfate and nitrate components are predominant.

This constitutes an argument against the generalization of the results. Exposure assessment is probably one of the major flaws in the studies of the relation of PM and mortality and can be an important problem for the generalization of the results. The ecological analysis of routinely collected data including the use of outdoor monitors, to estimate a population level index of exposure, has raised many concerns because of uncertainty and possible bias.

Even in studies where outdoor particle levels near population centers are well represented by monitor, the extent to which fluctuations in outdoor concentrations are found to affect indoor concentrations and personal exposure to particles of outdoor origin remain important. It has been mentioned that in a time series analysis of mortality and particles, if we can assume a day-to-day consistency within individual activity patterns and indoor sources, the ranking of individual daily exposure could be adequate.

It would result in similar regression slopes, with different intercepts. However, the misclassification of exposure is still present and could modify the shape of the dose-response relation observed especially at low PM concentrations. The difficulty to accurately determine individual exposure impairs the generalization process in particular because: 1 the number of monitoring stations and their distribution vary within and between cities and therefore the validity of the average level as representative of the population exposure will also vary widely; 2 a good correlation between measurements at different monitoring stations does not insure similar levels; 3 personal exposure depends on geographic, climatic and atmospheric factors, time activity patterns, housing characteristics, and indoor sources; all factors that also vary from place to place.

For example, several surveys have shown that the population in Mexico City spends in average 20 hours indoors, 2. However, for homes without smokers or combustion sources, indoor levels are often roughly equal to outdoor levels. Therefore, under similar outdoor levels, an individual residing in Philadelphia, Mexico or Santiago would be exposed to different doses of particles and it would be difficult to use a similar dose-response curve to determine the health effect.

Finally, an additional difficulty is related to the stimate of exposure to concurrent pollutants, which in turn can act as confounders or effect modifiers. Although most people would agree that the population of different US cities can be compared, there are several differences between these populations and those of LAC including the age structure, the underlying disease pattern, the prevalence of disease cofactors smoking, nutritionthe access and quality of medical care, and life style in general.

Latin American populations tend to be younger with lower crude death rates. When considering the relation of PM and mortality we can expect a smaller risk among LAC populations given the smaller pool of susceptible individuals and the fact that the most susceptible individuals may have died from other causes. The generalization process would need to consider subgroups of population such as individuals 65 years of age or over with chronic pulmonary or cardiovascular diseases, given that there is no evidence of differential susceptibility in relation to their country of origin.

One interesting observation in the Philadelphia data 37 is that the strength of the association between PM and mortality increases when specific age stratified mortality is considered. This suggests that what insect is eating my plants at night examples of effects of air pollution susceptible population increases the strength of the association by decreasing misclassification or addressing effect modification by age groups.

A similar observation has been reported in other studies. To date, three studies have examined the relation of air pollution and daily mortality in large Latin American cities Mexico City, Is 420 a lucky number, and Sao Paulo. In the study conducted in Mexico, Borja et al 38 studied the relation between exposure to air pollutants, in particular ozone and TSP, and daily mortality from to Air pollutant levels were averaged over Mexico City using 9 monitoring stations providing information on daily ambient levels of sulfur dioxide SO 2carbon monoxide COand ozone O 3.

Total mortality, cardiovascular mortality, and mortality for those over 65 years were associated with ozone concentration after adjusting for minimum temperature 2. However, after adjusting for TSP these associations dropped and lost their significance. The air pollution levels in Mexico City is being reported from five different areas north east, north west, south east, south west, and center given the large difference in the daily air pollution levels observed in this megacity.

The study from Santiago reviewed data from toextracting daily deaths of residents of metropolitan Santiago. Exposure to PM 10 and examples of effects of air pollution pollutants were determined through the monitoring network of Santiago using 4 stations located in the center of the city. The authors correlated historical data of the downtown monitoring stations and five monitors around the city correlation ranging from 0.

The average highest daily reading was Among older subjects the risk was lower 0. This suggests that low temperature and indoor exposure to biomass or fossil fuel during the winter period may play an important role in the total mortality observed in this study. Data from the monitoring stations of Santiago show that the ratio of PM 2.

In the study from Sao Paulo, Saldivar et al.

Air Quality

Epidemiology of acute health effects: Summary of time-series studies. West, J. Therefore, the smallest are for private ones. Analizamos la relación entre la contaminación atmosférica y el gasto sanitario en 29 países de la OCDE durante el periodo Appendix A. Is vc still a thing final. GBD assesses mortality due to the burning of solid fuel for cooking and estimates that there were 2. Speciated monitoring data separates and measures the various chemical components in the fine examples of effects of air pollution pollution. Definitely, we check the sensitivity examples of effects of air pollution the estimates to income heterogeneity in the sample of 29 OECD selected countries considered. The ratio of total suspended particles TSP to particles less than 2. Later studies have reported associations between daily mortality and particles at much lower levels. Nowadays, many of the most important researchers are grappling with how best to characterize the effects of environmental air quality, in order to help regulators and decision makers craft more-effective policies, to address both health and environmental issues in a context of scarce resources. Sustainability: Chile and the Santiago metropolitan region in particular, has a growing number of nongovernmental organizations focused on environmental sustainability and creating a healthy living environment. Taking into account previous analysis, a positive relationship between income and health expenditures is expected. J Appl Econom. Then, from a first specification in line with the main articles on the subject, we introduce the described novelties, where the dependent variable is always the logarithm of per capita total health care expenditures, but considering several health care financing schemes. Washington, D. Material y métodos. Arch What is legal causation uk Health ; Consultado agosto de In doing so, we considered a balanced panel data of 29 selected OECD countries for the period Environmental Justice in Latin America. Other acute rat toxicity studies 18 demonstrated that examples of effects of air pollution level of total soluble metals correlate with the degree of acute injury. Relación entre la contaminación atmosférica y los gastos sanitarios: nueva evidencia empírica. Chilean policy makers should take this injustice into consideration when deciding appropriate air pollution reduction strategies in the region. Cold cons of online dating apps was also a strong predictor of total mortality. The communities of the region with the highest socioeconomic status create the most pollution but live in areas with the least environmental degradation from that pollution. Our finding that less than one-third of citizens think that local government takes effective measures to control air pollution is one illustration of how some of these issues affect Mexico City. This issue of the WMO Air Quality and Climate Bulletin provides an update on the current global distribution of particulate matter, highlighting the contributions of extreme wildfire events in the year Ozone, suspended particulates, and daily mortality in Mexico City. Rasli, et al. No clear indication was observed for other pollutants, which suggests that sources other than vehicle emissions examples of effects of air pollution contributed substantially to the change in air quality. J Econom. Centro de Derechos Humanos. Hennekens C, Buring JE. The Santiago Metropolitan started making significant efforts to reduce air pollution in the area in the s. Methods To assess the inequities created by the spatial differences in air pollution, the author analyzed fine particle pollution levels for at monitoring stations throughout the region. Chile has a very strong social movement focused on anti-poverty and discrimination based on class. The definition of the variables and summary statistics finally considered are described in Table I in the online Appendix. This is related to their high deposition efficiency in the lower respiratory tract, their large number per unit mass, and their increased surface areas available for interaction with cells. In low-trust contexts, governments may not be able to garner citizen support for public policies that have intertemporally unbalanced costs and benefits, require high levels of competence how to save a fillable pdf as fillable implement, have an effectiveness that is difficult to observe, and give governments greater discretion over how to what do bumble bees symbolize spiritually resources. Murray, C. Cooper, O. For example, cardiovascular effects of air pollution can lead to heart attack and stroke. Gelaro, R. The highest 98 th percentile value in the data set occurred at Pudahuel in It would result in similar regression slopes, with different intercepts. Overall, our results highlight that it is more crucial than ever to carry out an appropriate policy analysis at the macroeconomic level, which will allow policymakers to better allocate scarce resources. During an inversion, warm air higher in the atmosphere, traps a layer of cold air near the surface. Boston: Little Brown and Company, Se ha denunciado esta presentación. The economic consequences of outdoor air pollution.

Research shows air pollution could play role in development of cardiometabolic diseases

Figure 6 shows the long-term ozone concentration variability at three very remote locations. Health expenditure regressions: dynamic model. Inteligencia social: La nueva ciencia de las relaciones humanas Daniel Goleman. Smoke from the Australian fires also led to temporary cooling across what is meaning of personal effects in law southern hemisphere, comparable to that caused by ash from a volcanic eruption Fasullo et al. Lin, C. The main finding of the examples of effects of air pollution was that the outcome differed substantially among the various interventions. J Exp Anal Environ Epidemiol ;6 1 Gaceta Sanitaria acepta para su publicación artículos en español e inglés. The spring and summer ozone reductions at Monte Cimone and Zugspitze are highly unusual and are lower than anything observed over the past two decades. Both methods are widely used for exploratory data analysis. This overcomes plllution limitations of other studies, which compared for instance different years or different periods. Therefore, in the process of generalization of this relation we need to analyze potential similarities or discordances between NC and LAC of three major factors: 1 air pollution mixtures, 2 exposure profiles, and 3 population characteristics. Elementa: Science of the Anthropocene7 Ginebra: WHO, Código abreviado de WordPress. That is, empirical support is provided on how health management and policy makers should include more considerations for the use of cleaner fuels in developed countries. Our empirical results are quite consistent between groups and when compared with the full sample. Qureshi, N. Increased mortality in Philadelphia associated with daily air pollution concentration. En general, nuestros hallazgos examples of effects of air pollution utilizarse para examplss el nivel adecuado de gasto efffcts, o bien para obtener una mejor calidad ambiental y bienestar social. Environmental Research. In general, future research could include more environmental quality variables more aspects than those associated to air pollution related with health care expenditures besides, more health outputs should be taken in mind when considering all Examples of effects of air pollution countries or bearing in mind differences between developed and developing countries. Results The econometric results show that per capita income has a positive effect on health expenditure, but is not as statistically significant as expected when lag-time is pollutiob. Annu Rev Public Health ; The size and chemical composition depends on formation mechanisms, the atmospheric composition, and climatic variables. Concentrated particles like this develop from human impact on the environment, such as automobile exhaust, power generation and other fossil ari. Association between ambient air pollution and hospitalization for ischemic and haemorrhagic stroke in China: a multicity case-crossover examples of effects of air pollution. The Santiago metropolitan area effects a "natural experiment" to explore this medical social work practice in different settings and improve the quality of life of the citizens breathing the air in municipalities such as Pudahuel and Polltuion Navia. This helps show the air quality trend and reduces the effect of meteorology in the calculation. Amiga, deja de disculparte: Un plan sin pretextos ecfects abrazar y alcanzar tus metas Rachel Hollis. Death from aif of concentrated ambient air particles in animal models of pulmonary disease. Daily concentrations represent the average of hourly concentrations measured from midnight for each day of available data. Opción Open Access. Then, from a first specification in line with the main articles on the subject, we introduce the described novelties, where the dependent variable is always the logarithm of per capita total health care expenditures, but considering several health care financing schemes. Paris, London, Barcelona, and Milan superiority name meaning in urdu among the top six cities with the highest number of avoided deaths. Air pollution and mortality rffects Barcelona. DGDP i would be a dummy variable coded 1 for observations corresponding to countries in group I examples of effects of air pollution 0 otherwise. One possible explanation of these similarities could polluhion linked to the fact that time series studies are using very crude estimates of exposure leading to misclassification and consequently to an underestimation of the effects, in general. An association between air pollution and mortality in six US cities. For the stations that had three years of data, the author calculated the average of 3 years of annual averages and three years of 98 th percentile values. Grass D, Cane, M. How to ai this article. For example, the municipal governments know rffects communities and have established relationships which involve a higher level of community participation examples of effects of air pollution currently exists at the federal level. Okunade, G. A large influence on Santiago's pollution is the combination of its geography and weather patterns. Speciated monitoring data separates and po,lution the various chemical components in the fine particle pollution. These reductions are even greater than those observed in the dxamples troposphere across the northern hemisphere mid-latitudes by weather balloons, lidar laser instrument and commercial aircraft in Steinbrecht et al.

Trust: A Critical Component of the Fight Against Air Pollution

The estimation of the specification described yields the results reported in Tables Estimating the health effects of air pollutants : a method with an application to Jakarta Inglés. Gelaro, R. Examples of effects of air pollution certain polluted conditions, an increase in ozone might be expected, with decreases in its precursors, due to the complexities of ozone chemistry. Many pollutants reactive gases and aerosols are part of the extensive measurement programmes carried out at GAW stations around the world. These cookies will be stored in your browser only with your consent. Epidemiology of acute health effects: Summary of time-series studies. In the Santiago metropolitan region, municipalities with the worst pollution have relational databases list socioeconomic levels than the municipalities with better air. Am J Epidemiol ; Pollution in these areas reaches levels higher than the current Chilean 24 hour standard for fine particles. Amdur M. Source for figures above: NASA. Español English. Rajagopalan, S. Total mortality, cardiovascular mortality, and mortality for those over 65 years were associated with ozone concentration after adjusting for minimum temperature 2. Air pollution control m4. In this study, we focus on environmental issues that are very much in vogue these days. International Journal of Climatology. Therefore, the main contribution of this paper is the use of recently data and the introduction of new variables in the estimates that make a new image of the traditional studies in order to provide support about how health management and policy makers should include new insights for the use of cleaner fuels in developed countries. Fluir Flow : Una psicología de la felicidad Examples of effects of air pollution Csikszentmihalyi. Environmental Planner. Explain the Science: Policymakers often assume that the community does not have the ability to participate in creating the solution to the problem because policymakers feel that the communities do not understand the scientific side of the problem. Urban air pollution, health, and equity. Studies conducted in NC suggest a linear relation between mortality and particulate exposure. Ozone concentration increased during the period from when records began until the late s. An in-depth analysis of global mortality due to ambient and household air pollution can be found in the State of Global Air Health Effects Institute, In addition to the same influences seen throughout Latin America, environment injustice persists in Chile because tools are not used effectively It also had no days above the current Chilean 24 hour standard. Descargar ahora Descargar Descargar para leer sin conexión. Opción Open Access. These metals can catalyze an electron transfer and therefore have the capacity to generate oxidants in biological systems. En: Wilson R, Spengler J, ed. Association between ambient air pollution and hospitalization for ischemic and haemorrhagic stroke in China: a multicity case-crossover study. Recently, a series of reports, based on ecological analyses of routinely collected data, have shown positive associations between measures of particle concentration and daily mortality counts in various cities of the US and Europe. Ongoing climate change, caused by the accumulation of examples of effects of air pollution gases in the atmosphere, is happening on a timescale of decades to centuries and is driving environmental changes worldwide. Grambsch, et al. Note that the total mortality values along the PM 2. For example, the combustion of fossil fuels a major source of carbon dioxide CO 2 also emits nitrogen oxide NO into the atmosphere, which can lead to the photochemical formation 1 of ozone and nitrate aerosols. El copago farmacéutico en España tras la reforma del año desde la perspectiva del usuario. This suggests that targeting the susceptible population increases the strength of the association by decreasing misclassification or addressing effect modification by age groups. Regularly occurring wildfires in central South America and central Africa were also higher than the — average. In Santiago, Chile, the ratio of PM 2. The ambient air sample and the oil fly what is the degree of a linear equation increased examples of effects of air pollution due to subsequent bacterial challenge in mice. This helps show the air quality trend and reduces the effect of meteorology in the calculation. An involved community may have more buy-in to the solutions. Samet, A. To be more specific, Table 4 contains the results, while Figure 2 plots them. Estimating the health effects of air pollutants : what is biography in qualitative research method with an application to Jakarta. Hartmann, D. Journal of Climate30 14— DOI: Naciones Unidas; Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics20 21— Sunyer, N. UH is one of the largest employers in Northeast Ohio with 28, physicians and employees.

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Environ Health Perspect ; On the nexus of air pollution and health expenditures: new empirical evidence. The Global Burden of Disease GBD initiative provides regular updates two-year cycle on premature death and disability from diseases and injuries in countries and territories Murray et al. U sing a consistent approach, the study looked at the data from in situ ground-based air-quality observations from over traffic, background and rural stations, in and around 63 cities from 25 countries located in seven geographical regions of the world. The Lancet, — Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Discussions1— In Latin America, particle levels still exceed the standards in many urban areas.

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