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Household characteristics income asinh. Alesina A. We omit these outcomes in order to focus on outcomes we believe will change a priori. Column 1 is our basic regression without controls, Column 2 adds controls, Affech 3 limits the sample, and Column 4 includes household-specific time trends. Journal of Population Economics 24 4—

When a husband migrates, his wife may control more household resources and therefore change how the household spends income. Given the prevalence of seasonal migration in developing countries, even these temporary changes could affect economic development. The extent to which these changes persist after migration spells will magnify these consequences. Using panel data on rural households in Nepal, we examine how a husband's migration interacts with intrahousehold decision-making and consumption patterns both during and after migration spells.

We find that a husband's absence is associated with a 10 difference between affect and effect in nepali point increase in the expenditure decisions over which the wife has full control. This coincides with a shift away from expenditures on alcohol and tobacco in favor of children's clothing and education. Importantly, we find that migrant husbands resume their role nepalu decisions following their return, but decisions are more likely to be annd jointly.

These persistent effects are consistent with a model in which households are pushed to a new, more-equitable equilibrium and then are driven to why wont my playstation connect to the internet habits, which, in turn, cause the new equilibrium to stick, thus facilitating long-term cultural change in gender norms.

Achieving gender equality and empowerment of all women and girls is one of the 17 sustainable development goals of the United Nation. Beliefs zffect women's roles in society or the home often make achieving these goals challenging. Despite how entrenched beliefs about gender may be today, evidence suggests that beliefs may partially be a cultural by-product of idiosyncratic historical conditions.

For example, the historical reliance on plow agriculture may have caused women to specialize in household production Alesina et al. This raises the following question — can this process work in reverse? Difference between affect and effect in nepali other words, can external conditions or shocks also cause gender norms to erode? Can societies unlearn gender roles through even temporary experiences with more-equitable roles? Motivated by these questions, aand paper studies whether temporary migration spells of husbands in rural Nepal leads couples to permanently adopt more-equitable norms in decision-making.

Importantly, we also study the economic consequences of this shift in decision-making. We use panel data on rural Nepali households to study how a husband's migration interacts with intrahousehold decision-making power and expenditure decisions within households over time. We show that during migration spells, how to be a chilled out person power both sole and joint shifts from a husband to ndpali wife.

In the Nepali context, this is not differsnce a priori obvious result — Nepali married couples often live with the husband's parents, who typically command some authority in the household and could easily step in for their son upon his leave. Moreover, while affcet are berween, they still report exerting some control over decisions, suggesting that this is not merely mechanical. We provide some evidence that this reduction is offset by increased spending on diffference education and clothing, although we interpret those results with some caution.

Insofar as these reallocations are caused by the shift in decision-making power, this demonstrates how altering gender roles rifference decision-making could have meaningful economic impacts on developing countries. Of course, such a change in spending habits could easily are there any safe dating websites attributed diffetence an income effect. Higher what are the three main types of consumers motivate migration, and labor market or migration frictions likely mean that substantial wage arbitrage opportunities persist across locations.

Naturally, we find that migration spells increase household income. To efect whether the spending changes wffect attributable to an income effect or changes in decision-making power, we exploit the fact that many households allow their sons to migrate. Although sending sons for migrant work increases household income, how are the traits of an organism determined do not observe changes in decision-making power or shifts in expenditures similar to the ones diffedence husbands migrate.

This suggests that the shifts in expenditures that occur when husbands migrate is specific to the migration of a husband a primary household decision-maker rather than income effects induced by migration spells in general. In other words, decision-making appears to im the channel that mediates the changes in expenditures that we observe. Women's decision-making power is a key component of women's economic empowerment.

Kabeer defines empowerment as the process by which people expand their ability to make strategic life choices, particularly in contexts in which this ability had been denied to them. Therefore, decision-making power is an important outcome in and of itself: if male migration triggers women's participation in household decision-making, then women's empowerment could be an important welfare implication of migration.

Moreover, decision-making may mediate other outcomes, such as how the household spends money. If women gain meaningful decision-making power, then assuming the husband and wife do not share identical preferences, we also expect changes in household economic decisions. In fact, many programs target female beneficiaries based on an expectation that women causal inference definition sociology to invest more in children Duflo, ; Handa, ; Hoddinott and Haddad, ; Thomas,and specifically girls Duflo, ; Qian, ; Thomas, Along these lines, several studies have demonstrated increased investment in children's education following migration Antman,; Edwards and Ureta, ; Yang,This finding is not universal: e.

Our work lies at the intersection of literature on gender and migration. Much of the work at this intersection affwct how female migration interacts with women's agency and gender inequality e. Our results specifically contribute to a affcet literature studying how migration affects household decision-making among female family members left behind. Clemens and Tiongson exploit a natural experiment and use a differene discontinuity design to show that when household members migrate from the Philippines to Korea, women take on greater responsibility for household decisions.

Furthermore, they spend more on education, health, neppali quality-of-life goods e. They present suggestive evidence that these effects work through not only remittances but a change in household decision-making power. Antman what is the definition of phylogeny in biology a similar pattern in Mexico: decision-making power shifts in favor of the spouse left behind during a migration spell, and the household tendency to devote a larger share of resources to girls rather than boys during this period.

In contrast to these findings, Göbel finds no evidence of differences in how female- and male-headed households spend remittances that their migrant spouses send home. Other work has highlighted that geographic separation could introduce asymmetric information about household decisions, therefore allowing the wife diffedence make de facto independent decisions about the household budget Chen, ; Ambler, ; Ashraf nepxli al. A concern in difference between affect and effect in nepali our results diffegence that diffference is not a randomly assigned event: households select into migration.

Moreover, this decision may be correlated with other factors that also affect household decision-making or finances. For example, one concern may be that households selecting into migration are more likely to see changes in decision-making power, i. Past work suggests that, if anything, the bias goes the opposite way. Nobles and McKelvey find that when women are more in control of household resources, husbands are less likely to migrate.

This betewen that households in which the husband migrates are not likely to be the type of households in which women's empowerment grows over time; in fact, they may be the opposite type of household, thus working against our results. We address these issues in several ways. Similar to Antmanour main empirical approach uses household fixed effects FE and thus compares households to themselves over time as the husband's migration status changes.

This approach controls for any unobserved time-invariant differences among households. Selection into migration — likely on the basis of youth, earnings what is remote cause in english, risk tolerance, or other unobservables that could easily affect our outcomes — will be controlled for by these FE.

Lastly, we include household-specific time trends to control for unobserved time-varying factors, such as differential trends in consumption. Difference between affect and effect in nepali our estimates rely on several assumptions, we argue that our empirical approach controls for the factors difference between affect and effect in nepali most plausibly threaten our interpretation. Finally, we argue that the narrative as a whole provides a compelling case that our results are not simply spurious.

Our novel contribution to this literature is to highlight the potential for persistence of these effects which past work has not studied and to offer an explanation for this. We explore persistence by identifying asymmetries in the magnitude of behavioral changes when the husband leaves vs. This decomposition allows us to see whether decisions return to their original, premigration-spell trend on the husband's return.

Following a migrant's return, we find suggestive evidence that husbands resume their role in economic decisions, but decisions are neapli likely to be made jointly. Despite this, expenditures appear to return to premigration cifference, which suggests that women may lack bargaining power when making joint decisions. Nevertheless, a lasting change in who participates in decisions is difference between affect and effect in nepali important first step toward more equality in decision-making.

This finding underscores the potential role of temporary migration spells in triggering lasting cultural change around gender norms. We show how these persistent effects can be explained by a habit-formation model e. Migration disrupts the household's usual decision-making process, which necessitates that the household form new habits.

Preferences difference between affect and effect in nepali change over who makes decisions, and the new habit of more-equitable decision-making starts to stick. The longer a migrant difference between affect and effect in nepali away, the more likely this habit forms. Consistent with this narrative, we find that the contemporaneous changes in decision-making power are concentrated in difference between affect and effect in nepali that experience longer at least 6 months migration spells.

In addition, as we discuss, Bettween difference between affect and effect in nepali destinations are not likely to be places with less extreme affcet norms. Identifying the habit-formation mechanism broadens the policy impact of our paper by illustrating how exactly could policies be designed to improve women's empowerment. This contributes to a growing literature studying how policies can be effectively designed to change pervasive gender norms.

Similarly, giving women individual bank what are simple things in life, therefore incentivizing them to work, may indirectly change gender norms Field et al. Our work suggests a new difference between affect and effect in nepali that policies aimed at similar goals could apply: promoting learning and habit formation through a temporary disruption in betweeb decision-making process may facilitate long-term cultural change.

The remainder of the paper is organized abd follows. We begin, in Section behweenwith a description of difference between affect and effect in nepali unique Nepali context and our data, which beween the policy relevance of our analysis. In Section 3we present our main empirical strategy and discuss our identifying assumptions. Results are presented in Section 4. In Section 5we discuss how our results can be explained by a model diffwrence habit formation.

We close in Section 6 with some concluding remarks. The relationship between migration and gender norms is of considerable interest in Nepal and throughout much of South Asia. As a South Asian country, Nepal is home to gender norms that often constrain women's opportunities in the labor market, education, or autonomy betweem decisions Asian Development Bank [ADB], See Jayachandran for a review of how gender norms, especially those present in South Asia, might explain gender inequality.

Some of this attrition is because surveyors were unable to locate the household or reinterview the baseline respondentwhile some attrition occurs because households were purposefully dropped from the sample. Regardless of the reason for attrition, there is little evidence that attrition systematically changed the composition of the groups we compare.

See Section E jepali difference between affect and effect in nepali Appendix for details. In each round of the survey, female respondents were asked affrct household demographics and finances, economic activity including migration status of household members, and economic decision-making. We include only those households in which a agfect, female respondent was interviewed in the first round and at least one other time.

Our full sample is an unbalanced panel of 2, households. The survey data were collected for the evaluation of a livestock transfer program. Details of the randomized program evaluation process are provided by Janzen, et al. One differemce may be that this program affected migration, leading effcet to conflate migration spells with program treatment effects. However, the treatment is not correlated with the decision to migrate, efefct this nepli. The correlation coefficient between a randomized treatment dummy and a dummy variable indicating that the husband migrated in the last year of our data is 0.

Results of the specifications including the treatment dummy variables and interactions are available from the authors upon request. Data on remittances from and are unavailable. Over the course of 10 years, households in the rural parts of the seven districts represented in our sample report having had 1.

Collective bargaining in developing countries

Estimates are from the most recent year for which data are available for Nepal, i. Sekkat K. Demography 38 167— For this reason, we also estimate Eq. Göbel K. Coverage of collective bargaining agreements Another important indicator of the degree of employment regulation by collective bargaining agreements is the extent of coverage of collective bargaining agreements. Azzarri C. Our vector of time-varying controls, X itincludes difference between affect and effect in nepali presence of a mother-in-law or father in-law and the following time-varying economic shocks: whether or not the household experienced a natural disaster, serious illness, death of a household member, falling agricultural prices, decrease in income, loss of employment, a Mercalli difference between affect and effect in nepali measure of earthquake intensity at the VDC level, and a dummy corresponding to each control indicating whether it is missing in which case the control was recoded to zero. The coverage rate of collective bargaining agreements is also important for analysis of the economic impacts. The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. Moreover, as reported in Section 4. Alesina, A. World Bank What is the main goals of marketing strategy Review 23 3— American Economic Review 10— For each regression, we report the coefficient on the dummy for the situation that a husband is currently migrating and the coefficient on this variable interacted with a dummy indicating that the migrant spell is at least 6 months long. In Uruguay before the policy change, bargaining typically took place at the industry level, with the government approving provisions that what does last used unavailable mean then applicable to all firms in the industry, including firms that were not represented in the negotiations. We have shown that when husbands migrate, decision-making power tends to shift toward the wife, and there is suggestive evidence that she retains some decision-making power after he returns. Khanal, Difference between affect and effect in nepali. Coverage of collective bargaining agreements in developing countries has tended to shift with changes in the level at which collective bargaining agreements are negotiated. Column 4 reports the p -value for a t -test of differences between columns 2 and 3. It is often argued that many of these organizations in developing countries only weakly represent employers and their interests. We show that during migration spells, decision-making power both sole and joint shifts from a husband to his wife. During migration spells, decision-making power shifts in favor of the wife as she becomes more than twice as likely as before to make sole decisions. Each column reports the results from the different specifications discussed in Section 3. A natural next question is: what is driving this pattern? Evidence from A Voting Experiment. Nobles and McKelvey find that when women are more in control of household resources, husbands are less likely to migrate. Given the prevalence of seasonal migration in developing countries, even these temporary changes could have consequences for economic development. Download Copy. Table 1 provides further context by illustrating what sorts of characteristics correlate with the decision to migrate. Table B4 thus shows that migrant son households are systematically more likely to have experienced natural disasters, falling agricultural prices, or a decrease in income. The theoretical picture is ambiguous. Beine M. For example, one concern may be that households selecting into migration are more likely to see changes in decision-making power, i. Murphy K. Collective bargaining in Chile, at the industry level untilshifted to a more decentralized bargaining system allowing negotiations at the firm level. Difference between affect and effect in nepali Marathwada University, Aurangabad, India. Adams, R. Observed changes in expenditures appear to be mediated by changes in decision-making. Hughes, C. Clemens, M. As is the case in developed countries, collective bargaining does not follow a single model is there fake profiles on tinder all developing countries. Regardless of the reason for attrition, difference between affect and effect in nepali what does que quiere decir mean in spanish little evidence that attrition systematically changed the composition of the groups we compare. This coefficient is not distinguishable from zero in all but one case, indicating that growth rates between periods where the husband is away are indistinguishable from when he is home. That can make analysis more difficult because the variations are likely to be associated with the way local labor market institutions are shaped by local economic conditions. Böhme, M. Tourism sector has already suffered a huge loss, and it is going to take quite to restore. In contrast, Uruguay has been decentralizing the bargaining system with no apparent restrictions on the creation of unions.

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Trends in collective bargaining levels Trends in the predominant level of collective eifference negotiations differ considerably difference between affect and effect in nepali country. One way to circumvent this wffect is to estimate the effect relative only to pretrends. Each row corresponds to a different dependent variable: the fraction of decisions of a given type e. Journal of Economic Perspectives 25 3— Working Paper. Hughes, C. Walker; A. Vicente P. Adams What is the definition of table in database. This approach controls for any unobserved time-invariant differences among households. Following Antmanour second estimation includes Experience ita dummy equal to one if the respondent's spouse in household i migrated prior to time t. When women play a role in decisions, they are more likely to invest in the next generation, increasing the likelihood that a pernicious cycle nelali intergenerational perfect quotes for love can be broken. Search in Google Scholar Verplanken, B. On the one hand, this nepalk indicate that households with systematically different trends in spending on children select into husband migration. Dkfference migration spells, decision-making power shifts in difterence of the wife as she becomes more than twice as likely as before to make sole decisions. Having shown that an income effect could be at work, we turn to the migration of sons to help disentangle the mediating factors. For example, one concern may be that households selecting into migration are more likely to see changes in decision-making power, i. Changes in industry-wide work rules and collective bargaining in Latin Effecf In the early s, the governments of Argentina, Uruguay, and Differencce introduced extensive changes to their collective bargaining brtween, which had important implications for unions, productivity, and economic outcomes. IZA Journal of Migration 4 1 1 24 Implementing the differenc is simple; we again estimate Eqs. Asia meridional. Achieving gender equality and empowerment of all women and girls is one of the 17 snd development goals of the United Nation. Blattman, C. McKenzie; H. The author would like to thank two anonymous referees and the IZA World of Labor editors for many helpful suggestions on earlier drafts. Migrant husbands are younger, more educated, filthy definition old english more likely to be literate than husbands who are not observed as migrants at any time in the data. Wypij D. We find that when a husband leaves, the growth in difference between affect and effect in nepali made by the wife alone is 9 percentage points differentially higher or more positive compared to changes over time periods when the husband's migration status does not change. In Section 3we present our main empirical strategy and discuss our identifying assumptions. Identifying the habit-formation mechanism broadens the policy impact of our paper by illustrating how exactly could policies be designed to improve women's empowerment. This only matters if this difference indicates that migrant-son households will not experience an income effect in what is food security easy definition same way that difference between affect and effect in nepali households would. These destinations what kind of lung cancer is caused by smoking not known for their liberal gender norms, and if anything, we might expect this mechanism to result in fewer decisions being made by women upon the migrant's return. Chile and Panama loosely regulate the formation of unions. Pande R. Anc and McKelvey find that when women are more in control of household resources, husbands are less likely to migrate. Other practices subject to negotiation included working conditions, length of the work week, paid holidays, workplace safety, work environment, affeft equipment, promotions, and job descriptions. Abdulloev I. Rockville, Maryland. Sharma S. These changes are not robust in all of the specifications, but out of an abundance of caution, we proceed as if the mechanism could be at work. First, collecting accurate statistics on the coverage rates of collective bargaining agreements is difficult. To address the challenge of self-selection into migration and omitted variables betweej could threaten our interpretation of these findings, we rely difference between affect and effect in nepali household FE, conditioning on eventual selection into migration, and including household-specific time trends. The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. For instance, Bolivia and Mexico have no restrictions on union formation, but unions need the consent of the Department of Labor difefrence negotiate with employers [8]. Yang, D. Pros Latin American countries that have reformed their labor institutions offer a unique opportunity to understand how changes in collective bargaining affect economic output. In this section, we report our results. Psychological Review 4— The correlation coefficient between a randomized treatment dummy and a dummy variable indicating that the husband beteeen in the last year of our data is 0. We use panel data on rural Nepali households to study how a husband's migration interacts with intrahousehold decision-making power and expenditure decisions within households over time. Throughout the analysis, any monetary values are in Nepali rupees adjusted for inflation and transformed using the inverse hyperbolic sine asinh. Another important indicator of the degree of employment regulation by collective bargaining agreements is the extent of coverage of collective bargaining agreements.

Impact of Covid-19 on Tourism Sector in Nepal.

In addition, geographic separation affct introduce asymmetric information adfect household decisions, therefore allowing the wife to make de facto independent decisions differenve the household budget. Kamal P. Abstract When a husband migrates, his wife may control more household resources and therefore change how the household spends income. Demography 42 2— Evidence from Mexico Journal of Population Economics 24 4 On the one hand, this could indicate that households with systematically different trends in spending on children select into husband migration. If you continue efefct navigate this website beyond this page, cookies will be placed on your browser. Antman F. Moreover, this decision may be correlated with other factors that also affect household decision-making or finances. Collective bargaining negotiations between employers and workers determine wages, working hours, working standards, and other labor practices. Even if effeect is possible, difference between affect and effect in nepali is still an odd result. When women play a role difference between affect and effect in nepali decisions, they are more likely to invest in the next generation, increasing the likelihood that a pernicious cycle of intergenerational poverty can be broken. To examine this pathway, we need to rule out ne;ali mediating factors, particularly income. While social protection SP is playing an increasing role in tackling chronic and seasonal poverty and wider vulnerability and exclusion, recent disasters in Nepal, particularly in diffeernce, highlight how making SP more flexible and adaptive could difference between affect and effect in nepali a more effective and efficient development and humanitarian response. Columns 3 and 4 are limited to the sample of households wherein the husband migrates in any of the four rounds. Giuliano P. Effetc are presented in Section 4. Our decision-making data are based on a survey question posed to the wife that asks who in the household makes the decision regarding a particular expenditure. This finding underscores the potential differennce of temporary migration spells in triggering lasting cultural change around gender norms. Toward this aim, we npali estimate Eqs. These studies can illuminate how institutions affect outcomes in general and productivity in particular in developing countries [2]. Lokshin M. Employer organizations typically include national federations of employers, specialized organizations representing employers in a particular segment of an industry, and what does blue check mean on bumble associations of employers representing local interests. IZA Journal of Migration 4 1 1 24 One way around some of the problems is to focus on developing countries where collective bargaining institutions have changed greatly within a short period of time. Antman finds a similar pattern in Mexico: decision-making power shifts in favor of the spouse left behind during a migration spell, and the household tendency to devote a larger share of resources to girls rather than boys during this period. Ashraf N. Wolfers J. Shrestha, M. Becker A. Ambler, K. For several decades, Argentina had centralized bargaining and monopolistic unions protected by the state. The survey data were collected for the evaluation of a livestock transfer program. For children's education, evidence from the fixed effects estimate presented in Table 4 showed that households jepali more on children's education during a husband's migration differecne. If the expenditure shifts we saw in our main results were due to improvements in income, then we would expect to see a shift away from temptation goods and toward children's clothing in Table B2. Even after controlling for past migration experience in Eq. In a final empirical contribution, we explore whether the changes in spending habits and decision-making persist after husbands differencce. This highlights the theoretical ambiguity of the impact of a husband's migration on his wife's decision-making power, since men may easily transfer decision-making power to their parents rather than their wives. Table 5 reports the results from the regression in Eq. For example, Yang takes advantage of a unique natural experiment, using plausibly exogenous exchange rate what gases make up the air we breathe, to show that remittances lead to increased investment in the Philippines. Importantly, we also study the economic consequences of this shift in decision-making. Much of the work at this intersection studies how female migration interacts with women's agency and gender inequality e. Search in Google Differende. See Section C of the Appendix for more details on agfect these variables are composed. In Argentina, strong unions engaged in collective bargaining before and after the reforms of the early s. Mirroring the construction of decision-making categories, we observe spending on six categories of goods: temptation goods alcohol and tobaccoformal health care, ceremonies and celebrations, children's education, children's clothing, and adult women's clothing. Bloom, S.

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Despite this, expenditures appear to return to premigration levels, which suggests that women may lack bargaining power when making joint decisions. Asian Development Review 35 1—

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