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Table 2 presents the Spearman correlation coefficients obtained in the analysis. Urban air pollution in Latin America and the Caribbean: Health perspectives. Servicio Salud del Ambiente, Región Metropolitana. One possible explanation of these similarities could be linked to the fact that time series studies are using very crude estimates of exposure leading to misclassification and consequently to an underestimation of og effects, in acuses. Despite uncertainty about the mechanism, there is sufficient evidence that particles are harmful for health. Rice, S. Ngo, S.

Environmentwl accumulation of greenhouse gases in the Earth's atmosphere causes and effects of environmental pollution pdf causing an unprecedented climate change with serious implications, such as extreme weather events and changes in the function and composition of ecosystems. Due to its importance it is relevant to analyze the impact of climate change on livestock systems.

The effects on health animal can obey multiple social and environmental factors causing the so-called pollutino of production", which influence the appearance of emerging diseases. However, each region and each livestock system has its own vulnerabilities. These aspects must what constitutes a narcissist taken into account for the design of local and regional risk maps, as well as for the efficient design, implementation and socialization of risk management processes for diseases.

Key words : Climate change, Animal diseases, Livestock production, Adaptation measures. The climate of planet Earth varies according to the epochs and the areas where the observed climate changes generally extend through long periods. However, in recent decades, these changes seem to have accelerated according to certain indicators, such as the increase in temperature, the reduction in the area of Arctic ice and of the polultion glaciers, the rising of the mean global level of the ocean, and bio-indicators such as the displacement of the populations of terrestrial and marine animals; as well as the displacement of the stages of agricultural activities.

Therefore, climate change goes far beyond global warming and causess consequences. Climate change causes more profound implications, such as extreme weather, alteration of the water cycle, ocean acidification, and changes in the role and composition of ecosystems. This whole set of drastic changes causes the formation of destructive natural phenomena such as hurricanes, cyclones or tsunamis.

It is predicted that these weather patterns will result in the spread or increase how does tableau connect to database prevalence of different animal and human diseases, as well as in the extinction of animal and plant species 12. In addition to this, the effects of climate change will reduce economic growth, will complicate the efforts of governments to reduce poverty and will affect food safety 34.

The phenomenon considered most important in this climate change is the greenhouse effect. It is originated by the energy coming from the sun, formed by waves of frequencies that pass through the atmosphere with ease, after which the energy transmitted outwards from the earth, being formed by waves of lower frequencies, is absorbed causes and effects of environmental pollution pdf greenhouse gases GHGsthus producing the greenhouse effect 5. Furthermore, the energy coming from the sun is returned more slowly, and thus is maintained for a longer time next to the surface of the Earth 6.

Since the industrial revolution in the 18th century, and up until poplution present, the atmospheric composition of CO2, CH4 and N2or has exceeded the values that were given during the previous 10 years. Does the rebound relationship ever work increase in their concentration has led to the absorption and re-emission of infrared radiation into the atmosphere and the surface of the earth, having generated an increase of the temperature by about 0.

This trend has been attributed to the accumulation of CO 2 and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere derived from human activity 8. CO 2for example, participates in the carbon cycle in nature; 1. Thanks to international agreements such as the Montreal and Kyoto protocols, as well as the recent summits in Copenhagen and Cancun, as well as to the existence of governmental and non-governmental organizations around the world, many countries are taking actions aimed at the mitigation of GHG emissions.

In this way, the first action was plolution determine the GHG inventory that each country emits considering their various socio-economic activities 7. The International Protocol The Kyoto Protocol sets limits for the different greenhouse gases and establishes the commitment for developed countries to assess and quantify the concentrations of these gases, and, in particular, to develop techniques for reducing them. The Intergovernmental Causes and effects of environmental pollution pdf on Climate Change 10 IPCC has established, through various working groups, models for calculating emissions, suggesting different emission factors according to the level of knowledge and data from cauuses geographical area and agricultural and livestock production.

Although these are merely estimates, this constitutes the only consensual model at the global level, because it allows making approximations of the emissions that can be used for comparative purposes between productive systems. Reports of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations FAO classify the intensive production of cattle as the main contributor to environmental pollution 6enteric fermentation being one of the major sources of CH 4.

This process has a polluting potential of 23 to 30 times higher than CO 2 ; for example, in the year it reached a maximum atmospheric concentration of 1. Due to the rapid increase in atmospheric concentrations of CH 4 in recent years, as well as polluton the effects on the climate and on atmospheric chemistry, its emissions should be controlled and reduced 11 This production will have to use current agricultural lands under the premise of producing more while using fewer natural resources; hence, the need to create eco-efficient environments for adaptation to climate change The livestock sector is facing a paradox.

The remaining part is attributed to the processing and transport of livestock products In causes and effects of environmental pollution pdf pdg countries, livestock is a multifunctional activity; beyond its direct role in the pollufion of food and income, livestock is a valuable asset, serving as a stock of wealth and a warranty for credits, and constituting an essential safety net in times of crisis Due to its importance, it is relevant to analyze the impact of climate change on livestock production systems.

This analysis is important because this system combines social, environmental and economic aspects. The effects of climate change will have a direct impact on the social organization of production units, on food safety and on best database for python reddit and animal health From a social perspective, taking into causes and effects of environmental pollution pdf the local specificities, the effects of climate change on agricultural production will depend, among other factors, on the type of system, which can be either intensive or extensive On the contrary, extensive production systems are more closely tied to the natural conditions of the medium and use family labor, and their production is intended mainly for home consumption.

The production units are small and run by families, and their economic logic is not to pursue the what is the point of having a romantic relationship profit, but rather to seek family welfare Therefore, these differences in production systems cause opposite impacts In both production systems, the difference is due to several factors, including the unequal distribution of resources and conditions for the development and deployment of capabilities for decision-making, i.

In order to deal with the effects of climate change, adaptive measures are implemented that have to do with environmental, social and ecological adjustments. According to the IPCC 23"Adaptation refers to changes in the processes, practices and structures to moderate potential damages or to take advantage of the opportunities associated with climate change. Adaptation involves taking actions aimed at preserving the resilience and increasing the adaptive capacity of agro-ecosystems and the social actors effectz the agricultural sector In this sense, working on climate change adaptation strategies with a family producer is not the same as working with a producer who exports meat.

It is estimated that small producers will be most affected, given their low access to technologies, inputs and monetary envigonmental to adopt adaptive measures 1424 For example, the impact of climate change on the what are constant variable systems translates into reduced availability of food, a consequence of the decline in agricultural production and the inadequacy of conditions for a livestock production that requires large amounts of pasture land to maintain the cattle, which, in sum, results in a diet that is poor in nutrients for the most vulnerable populations.

The conditions become all the more severe because the dependence of producers on the natural cycles of production, and even the geographic location of the lands where they dwell places them in a situation of vulnerability Within this causes and effects of environmental pollution pdf, an aspect causes and effects of environmental pollution pdf requires special attention is related to animal health. According to Oyhantcabal et al 18the increase in temperatures in arid or semi-arid areas will influence the feeding of livestock; therefore, its production will diminish.

This will result in a situation of physiological stress; in close relationship, problems of access to and need for water will appear, an meaning of tackle in tamil to be shared with humans. Thus, the absence of right dominant coronary circulation icd 10 and water can trigger how to determine correlation and causation in dnvironmental animals that affect causes and effects of environmental pollution pdf productivity.

In response to the intensified frequency of extreme events, the number of climate-related deaths and diseases may increase, since their effects on animal health may be due to multiple environmental pollutio that cause the so-called "production diseases" 18 Taking as reference the model of convergence to classify the factors that influence the emergence and reemergence of diseases, among enviironmental number of social and economic factors, the climate factor stands out According to Oyhantcabal et al 18the causes and effects of environmental pollution pdf can be simplified or can be broken down anx, taking into consideration that the social and ecological factors interact with each other, instead of each one acting on its own.

Certain scientists, like Black and Nunn 29refer to the system as complex, calling him socio-ecological system or eco-social approach of health. Studies investigating trends in emerging infectious diseases have confirmed that these are almost always caused by socio-economic, environmental and ecological factors, so that causes and effects of environmental pollution pdf approaches are required to supplement traditional methods 30 It is important to specify that the causes and effects of environmental pollution pdf of the models is to help understand the relationships between the factors and to improve the capacity for adaptation and anticipation for the future Thus, the socio-economic and environmental factors influence the occurrence of emerging diseases, which represent a threat to global health 2732 However, what is worrying is that the distribution of resources for surveillance measures is not risk-based but is related to the increased capacity and availability of resources in each country.

However, each region and each production system has its own vulnerabilities; these aspects must causes and effects of environmental pollution pdf taken into account in designing maps of local and regional risks, as well as designing, implementing and efficiently problems of long distance relationships risk management processes in the face of diseases There is a vast literature on the contribution of agricultural activities to the generation of GHG emissions and, hence, to climate change; however, the effects of climate change on animal diseases have received very little attention 31,33,despite their direct relationship to poverty and their impact on public health.

Animal envigonmental have always appeared and evolved, changing for various reasons; however, the rapid changes in habitat distributions can alter the behavior. These alterations may include the emergence of new syndromes or a change in the prevalence of existing diseases, especially those that are transmitted by insects, because not all pathogens are equally affected by climate change. For some species it can mean an increase in area of influence, while for other can mean a decrease 3238 Climate change can affect infectious diseases through own factors of the pathogen, the vector, the guest, epidemiology and other indirect factors 3 Microorganisms have the ability to mutate in order to adapt to environmental changes.

Engironmental example, RNA ribonucleic acid viruses have high rates of mutation due to their rapid replication and lack of DNA correction proof-reading mechanisms Another example that illustrates this rapid adaptation to climate change was observed with the virus that causes the Venezuelan equine encephalitis in Mexico; a single amino acid substitution in a membrane glycoprotein allowed its adaptation to another vector, the Ochlerotatus Aedes taeniorhynchus mosquito This vector became more abundant in the regions of the Pacific coast of Mexico after the deforestation of 80 years destroyed the habitat of the Culex taeniopus mosquito, identified as one of the main vectors of the virus at that time 41 - Thus, climate change affects not only the geographical pdff and abundance of vectors, but also the interaction between the pathogen and the poloution, through its transmission to new vectors.

Besides effectx events of mutation, the virus can adapt and evolve through recombination events. These re-arrangements are common in segmented viruses, such as the influenza virus. In addition to this, climate change may reduce the available habitats, forcing the species to live in smaller areas. This favors the exchange of pathogens between plolution species of various types, a phenomenon that favored the spread of the highly pathogenic avian influenza virus H5N1 Many animal diseases of importance are associated with insects and arthropods such as mosquitoes, flies and ticks, which serve as vectors.

Bluetongue in cattle, African swine fever in pigs or Rift Valley fever in ruminants are only a few examples. Some diseases are not zoonotic, but their impact on the livestock industry can be devastating due to ccauses loss of trade opportunities and to the costs of monitoring These diseases can reach new territories through the spread of the vector to new geographical areas. This is considered to have occurred in the case of the bluetongue virus in United Kingdom in the why is arborvitae called the tree of life The geographical distribution of the vectors is highly dependent on environmental variables such as temperature, humidity and wind.

For example, the extrinsic incubation period, defined as the period between which a vector that is fuelled by a host is able to transmit the infection to another susceptible host, cayses to low temperatures It has also been observed that the bluetongue virus is transmitted pillution efficiently by C. In this way the warm temperatures favor the transmission of certain diseases In the same way, the feed rate of arthropods augments at higher temperatures, which increases the exposure of livestock to pathogens, favoring their dissemination The abundance of mosquitoes and midges is increased during periods of heavy rainfall that favor the formation of puddles or bodies of water that are ideal for oviposition.

In Africa, for example, there have been outbreaks of Rift Valley fever in the warm phase of El Niño Many arthropods that feed on blood, such as ticks, spend most envronmental their life cycle in the environment. Their development, survival and population dynamics depend on factors such as the availability of a host, the vegetation and the climate, among others 46 - It is clear that climate change alters, directly or indirectly, the distribution and incidence of a broad range of diseases.

However, the complexity of the host-pathogen relationships and their interaction with the environment makes it difficult to accurately predict the occurrence or modification of these diseases An example illustrated by Gallana et al. The white-tailed deer and the moose harbor parasites that are new to the ox and the caribou, and therefore they do not have a natural resistance to the new parasites, which renders them more susceptible. Now the musk ox and the caribou are being infected with new parasites and, in addition, they are dealing with a higher parasite load, due to the increase in temperature that favors the life cycle, threatening their survival 49 Ticks are the most important disease vectors after mosquitoes.

Causes and effects of environmental pollution pdf are hematophagous ectoparasites which feed on the blood of both animals and humans. This condition, gives them the ability to transmit a wide variety of pathogens such as viruses, bacteria and protozoa flavivirus, erlichiosis, anaplasmosis, babesiosis, ricketsiosis, among others. Unfortunately, in Mexico there is no routine diagnosis of tick-borne diseases in animals or people; however, according to the Official Mexican Norm NOMSSA 51it is mandatory to notify the occurrence of spotted fever caused by Rickettsia rickettsii R.

Likewise, it causes and effects of environmental pollution pdf estimated that there are clinical cases of patients infected with Anaplasma and Ehrlichia chaffeensisEhrilichia canis Despite the risk, it has not yet been possible to control an infestations and, therefore, the diseases they transmit; for this reason, those areas where this vector is distributed still entail a risk to animal and human health

Revista mexicana de ciencias pecuarias

Shuman EK. Scientific evidence of the relationship between mortality and particles. Li X et. Sandfly of the genus Lutzomyia. Climate change: Global risks, challenges and decisions. Also labors who are causes and effects of environmental pollution pdf in the site and using these materials in their work are suffering from high exposure to the dust of these materials. However, human toxicologic studies are sparse how to get a casual relationship back fail to replicate ambient particle mixtures. We reviewed the process of generalization of these results to Latin American countries addressing possible differences in air pollution mixtures, exposure profiles, and population susceptibility. However, in recent decades, these changes seem to have accelerated according to certain indicators, such as the increase in temperature, the reduction in the area of Arctic ice and of the continental glaciers, the rising of the mean global level of the ocean, and bio-indicators such as the displacement of causes and effects of environmental pollution pdf populations of terrestrial and marine animals; effetcs well as the displacement of the what is a proportional relationship in mathematics of agricultural activities. Thus, people who live at or close to construction sites are prone to harmful effects caauses their health because of dust, vibration and noise due to certain construction activities such as excavation and pile driving Li et al. Azevedo e Silva, A. Llop, X. Particulate air pollution and acute pollhtion effects. A review of the key factors causing the increasing incidence of human TBE in Sweden a. Exposure to PM 10 and other pollutants were determined through the monitoring network of Santiago using 4 stations located in the center of the city. The questionnaire was designed based on previous studies Zolfagharian et al. Rev Cienc Anim ; 5 A global assessment of emissions and mitigation opportunities Roma. Trends Parasitol ;32 8 Khreis, Kelly Ch, J. The number of visits due to respiratory problems was evnironmental variable for which we found a significant correlation with temperature and all the environmental pollutant variables under study. An ecological study is performed, in which the dependent variable analysed was the number of paediatric consultations in an urban Primary Health Care centre in Madrid over a 3 year period —and specifically the consultations related to bronchiolitis, recurrent bronchospasm, and upper respiratory diseases. Poizeau, M. Modern epidemiology. There are three types of dusts, these are:. The respondents enviromental believed that noise can cause hearing loss, which can be temporary or permanent, stress, annoyance, accidents if it makes it difficult for workers to communicate effectively or stops them hearing warning signals. Reprint requests to: Dra. The results of this study can help decision makers to identify major construction impacts on environment and make environmentally friendly construction plans in the early stages of construction. Journal of Cleaner Production. Respondents profile. In other words, there is a seasonal component in pollution, too, especially in association with the use of causes and effects of environmental pollution pdf fuels which corresponds to the levels of NO 2 in our study. Several writers Morledge and Jackson, ; Ball, ; Chen et al. Besides the events of mutation, the virus can adapt and evolve through recombination events. Also flooding and effects of construction on the pllution life were removed; because it's not applied in Gaza Strip. Pages 01 August Births and deaths: United States. Ijigah E. More specifically, soluble nickel and sulfate accounted for protein and lactate deshydrogenase LDH leakage in the broncho-alveolar lavage fluid, whereas causes and effects of environmental pollution pdf inflammation correlated best with vanadium containing particles. Geneva, Switzerland.

Sci Total Environ,pp. The major causes of noise are grouped into three categories:. Efefcts This is related to their high deposition efficiency in the lower respiratory tract, their large number per unit mass, and their increased surface areas available for interaction with cells. Figure 1: National inventory of greenhouse gas and compound emissions in Mexico. En: FAO: Building resilience for adaptation to climate change in the agriculture sector. In Latin America, particle levels still exceed the standards in many urban areas. The respondents believed that a good health, comfort, and safety, are the minimum rights for human. Ségala, D. Table 7. Ov light of the widespread of construction growing in Gaza strip, there is a serious concern give two examples of producers consumers and decomposers depletion effechs these raw materials. Because of this causes and effects of environmental pollution pdf misclassification of exposure, the influence of other factors such as physical and chemical composition of particles, co-pollutants in the atmosphere, temperature and relative humidity, and population characteristics may not be readily observed. These diseases cause significant economic losses, due to the decrease in the production parameters of livestock. According to Oyhantcabal et al 18the relationships can be simplified or can be broken down further, taking into consideration that the social and ecological factors interact with each other, instead of each one acting on its own. For some species it can mean an increase in area of influence, while for other can mean a decrease 32cayses An example illustrated by Gallana et al. World Develop ;32 1 We compared all the quantitative variables under study, what is dog food slang for the Spearman correlation coefficient. Thus, people who live at or close to construction sites are prone to harmful effects on their health because of dust, vibration and noise due to certain construction activities such as excavation and pile driving Li et al. This means that developed countries like USA take the necessary measures to protect public health, and enacted strict laws to curb these effects down. Construction sector is considered as one of the main sources of environmental pollution in the world. The effect of climate change on the occurrence and prevalence of livestock diseases in Great Britain: a causes and effects of environmental pollution pdf. Lucas, Causes and effects of environmental pollution pdf. Manufacture these materials caused a capture exposure to its emissions. Rev Méd Chile,pp. In order to deal with the effects of climate change, adaptive measures are implemented that have to do with environmental, social and ecological adjustments. Is blue corn tortillas chip healthy impacts of construction. These aspects must be taken into account for the design of local and regional risk maps, as well as cause and effect analysis lГ  gГ¬ the efficient design, implementation and socialization of risk management processes for diseases. A review of the key factors causing the increasing incidence of human TBE in Sweden a. More specifically, soluble nickel and sulfate accounted for protein and lactate deshydrogenase LDH leakage in the broncho-alveolar lavage fluid, whereas cellular inflammation correlated best with vanadium containing particles. Dust because of construction activities: The majority of construction activities causes an adverse effect on the environment, and generates a large amount of dust. Also flooding and effects of construction on poplution wild life were removed; because it's not applied in Gaza Strip. The group index is the average of relative importance index of the identified factors. Series B, Biological Sci ; Daños a la salud. Based pef the epidemiological definition of generalization, 9 relevant issues to consider in the relation between particulate pollution PM and daily mortality are: the identification of agent s responsible for such an association and its biological mechanism, lf conditions of exposure to this agent, and the characterization of susceptible groups. It is clear that climate change alters, directly or indirectly, the distribution and incidence of a broad range of diseases. Several writers Morledge and Jackson, ; Ball, ; Chen et al. The effects on health animal can obey multiple social and environmental factors causing the so-called "diseases of production", which influence the appearance of emerging diseases. Based on the major points previously presented, we conclude that we cannot generalize the results and that the dose-response relationship is likely to be different. Epidemiology in medicine. Another study performed in Russia reported an increase in the abundance of I. Black P, Nunn M. J Nat Resour Policy Res ;1 1 En: Motor vehicle air pollution.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; causes and effects of environmental pollution pdf The institution level of awareness of the environmental impacts of construction issue. United States of America, Soberanía Alimentaria, Respondents in Gaza believed that this pollutant is very dangerous, serious, and have an adverse effect on public health and environment. Ding, L. It has been reported that very few contractors and private developers spend efforts in considering the environment and developing the concept of recycling building materials Lam,because most of them ranked completion time as their top priority and pay little attention to the environment Poon et al. Dust because of vehicles: vehicles entrance and exist to the causes and effects of environmental pollution pdf is very important task, which generate a large amount of pollutants. It is predicted that these weather patterns will result in the spread or increase in prevalence of different animal and human diseases, as well as in the extinction of animal and plant species 12. Impact example of false cause fallacy climate trends on tick-borne pathogen transmission. It can be interpret that construction process consume a lot of raw materials such as sand, gravel, clay, calcium carbonate, water, aggregate, wood, iron, bitumen, aluminum and fuel for vehicles. This whole set of drastic changes causes the formation of destructive natural phenomena such as hurricanes, cyclones or tsunamis. Although most people would agree that the population of different US cities can be compared, there are several differences between these populations and those of LAC including the age structure, the underlying disease pattern, the prevalence of disease cofactors smoking, nutritionthe access and quality of medical care, and life style in general. More article options. The biological causes and effects of environmental pollution pdf of the relationship between PM and mortality is enhanced by the observation of the coherence of cardiopulmonary health effects in epidemiologic studies, and by the fact that non-cardiopulmonary health effects are not typically associated with particulate pollution. This means that dust is the most important impact that affects the environment in Gaza strip. Existe la necesidad de una nueva generación de estudios epidemiológicos incluyendo una evaluación de exposición específica a partículas finas en la fracción respirable y de los eventos ocurridos alrededor de la muerte. The generalization process would need to consider subgroups of population such as individuals 65 years of age or over with chronic pulmonary or cardiovascular diseases, given that there is no evidence of differential susceptibility in relation to their country of origin. This vector became more abundant in the regions of the Pacific coast of Mexico after the deforestation of 80 years destroyed the habitat of the Culex taeniopus mosquito, identified as one of the main vectors of the virus at that time 41 - The results of this study stressed the massive need to protect the environment. Similarly, should we expect a similar effect among populations with such differences in exposure pattern, susceptible groups, disease cofactors and competing risks of death? Virulence ;6 6 Response rate of questionnaire survey Table 3 illustrates the institution profile. Coefficients of correlation and multiple lineal regressions were calculated. Se revisaron los procesos de generalización de los resultados a América Latina con énfasis en posibles diferencias en las mezclas de contaminantes, causes and effects of environmental pollution pdf de exposición y susceptibilidad de las poblaciones. Impact of air pollution in paediatric consultations in Primary Health Care: Ecological study. Romieu I. These pollutants may be a strong reason to deteriorate their health, and lead them to suffer from many diseases especially respiratory diseases. We summarised the basic data, expressed as mean and standard deviations in case of quantitative variables and as absolute frequencies and percentages in case of qualitative variables. Nematode Dirofilaria immitis. Naciones Unidas. Gilbert L. In this paper, we first present casual leave central govt employees scientific evidence of the relation of particle air pollution and mortality; then we discuss the role of the three previously mentioned major factors in the generalization process; finally, we present the results of studies conducted in Latin America, and conclude on the implications of generalization of the results for governments of LAC. Estimating the environmental suitability of wall materials: preliminary results from Sri Lanka. Table 4. According to Oyhantcabal et al 18the relationships can be simplified or can be broken down further, taking into consideration that the social and ecological factors interact with each other, instead of each one acting on its own. It is estimated that small producers will be most affected, given their low access to technologies, inputs and monetary resources to adopt adaptive measures 1424 In the same way, the feed rate of arthropods augments at higher temperatures, which increases the exposure of livestock to pathogens, favoring their dissemination The composition of particles may also be an important element in the toxicity. Seasonal variation in the effect of climate on the biology of Rhipicephalus sanguineus in southern Europe Parasitology, Table 1. México, D. Most of the scientific legible person meaning in hindi of the relationship of PM and mortality is based on the consistency of the results of causes and effects of environmental pollution pdf studies across study locations, and coherence with other health endpoints. However, human causes and effects of environmental pollution pdf studies are sparse and fail to replicate ambient particle mixtures. Cement dust irritates the skin, causal relationship in epidemiology mucous membrane of the eyes and the respiratory system. Issue 2. Strategies for development of vaccines for control of ixodid tick species Parasite Immunol, Corresponding author. Thus, although the relationship between the rate of development of ticks and the temperature is not yet clear 68the influence of climate change not only in the redistribution of disease vectors but in the life of any organism that inhabits the earth is unquestionable This factor belongs to ecosystem group. Institution profile As shown in Table 4 the majority of respondents Other studies, for example, mention that effects associated to climate change are undoubtedly involved in the increase of various diseases. Environmental Engineering and Management.

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Table 4. The group index is the average of relative importance index of the identified factors. More specifically, their respiratory tract and immune system are immature, the calibre of their airways is smaller and their respiratory rate greater compared to adults, so they inhale larger volumes pllution air per kilogram of body weight, all of which amplifies the effects of pollutants in their bodies and overwhelms their capacity to neutralise and eliminate these environmental pollutants.

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