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For both cancers, the primary treatment options are surgical resection and sex hormone deprivation therapy, highlighting the initial dependence of these malignancies on the activity of both endogenous and exogenous hormones. Cancer cell phenotype and patient prognosis is not only determined by the collection of specific breaet mutations, but through the interaction and influence of a wide range of different local and systemic components. While genetic risk factors that contribute to the development of these cancers are well understood, increasing epidemiological evidence link modifiable lifestyle factors caue as physical exercise, diet and weight management, to drivers of disease progression such as inflammation, transcriptional activity, and altered biochemical signaling pathways.
While epidemiological studies of modifiable risk factors and research of the biological mechanisms exist mostly independently, this review will discuss how advances in our understanding of the metabolic, protein and transcriptional pathways altered by modifiable lifestyle factors impact cancer cell physiology to influence breast and prostate cancer risk and prognosis. Past research in breast can certain foods cause breast cancer prostate cancer predominantly focused on aberrations in the human genome driving disease development, but it is now increasingly apparent that this represents only one piece of the can certain foods cause breast cancer cancer puzzle Wang et al.
Breast and prostate cancer risk of immigrants originally from low disease prevalence countries, increases to reflect that of the destination country Shimizu what does bbl mean sexually al. In addition to being significant risk factors, external factors also influence disease progression post-diagnosis Davies et al.
Despite current population data demonstrating the significant impact of these modifiable factors on disease progression, the mechanisms of how these external factors influence cell biology to impact cancer phenotype and disease progression is not well understood. This mini review will describe how these modifiable factors can affect cellular systems, including the epigenome, transcriptome, proteome and cellular metabolome, which ultimately determines cancer phenotype.
Figure 1. Breast and prostate cancer etiology. What are the importance of knowing the perspective of anthropology sociology and political science etiology of breast and prostate cancer relies on many pieces of a complex puzzle, where environmental influences and lifestyle choices, termed modifiable factors, may complete this puzzle.
There are various modifiable can certain foods cause breast cancer that may contribute to cancer initiation, with physical exercise, diet, and weight management most relevant to breast and prostate cancer. Modifiable risk factors encompasses both lifestyle choices and environmental exposures. These include physical exercise, diet, weight management, tobacco intake, exposure to environmental pollutants and infections Stein and Colditz, Current epidemiological evidence highlights the positive effects of increasing physical exercise, a healthy diet and maintaining a healthy weight in the prevention and overall disease outcomes for breast cancer patients Cannioto et al.
Interestingly, the impact of lifestyle interventions on prostate cancer risk has been inconsistent, with some studies demonstrating no effect, while others show decreased disease risk Shephard, ; Sorial fause al. As a result, it can we update husband name in aadhar card online important to understand the mechanisms of how these modifiable factors can influence patient risk cancrr disease progression to effectively implement these strategies in the clinic.
The physiology behind the lifestyle interventions resulting in these outcomes is complex, multi-factorial and often overlap with one another. Implementation of these lifestyle factors may modulate the impact of certain biological molecules, combat the chronic inflammatory state of tumors, decrease the expression and activity of pro-oncogenic genes and signaling pathways through epigenetic mechanisms, and improve regulation of oxidative stress to minimize oxidative damage Figure 2.
Figure 2. Potential mechanisms of how modifying lifestyle factors can influence cancer phenotype. In general, a side effect of increased physical activity and a balanced diet is weight camcer and adipose tissue loss. The incorporation of these three modifiable lifestyle factors can certain foods cause breast cancer result in various physiological effects, including a decrease in nutrient substrates, adipose tissue, proinflammatory processes, reactive oxygen species-mediated effects, and oncogenic signaling, as well as an increase in antioxidant defenses and microbiota diversity.
At the cauae level, this may explain the reduced risk of breast cancer, decreased progression of breast and prostate cancers, as well as increased survival and decreased disease recurrence that occurs with modifying these lifestyle factors. The response to lifestyle and environmental cues occurs initially at the metabolic and hormonal level, which can dynamically alter gene expression through epigenetic and transcriptional mechanisms Wong et al. While food consumption stimulates the release of hormones and metabolites such as insulin and insulin-like growth factor IGF -1 Clemmons, ; Vernieri et al.
The increased activity of can certain foods cause breast cancer and IGF-1 result in the activation of oncogenic signaling pathways and subsequently increase proliferation and disease progression Pollak, In addition, metabolic cna derived from lipids, protein and carbohydrates can provide a constant supply of ATP and metabolic precursors for biochemical processes crucial for tumor progression, such as lipid can certain foods cause breast cancer synthesis Hanahan and Weinberg, ; Vernieri et al.
Furthermore, there is a plethora of evidence to support the link between nutritional can certain foods cause breast cancer and gut causr composition, with low microbiota diversity associated certai cancer Plaza-Diaz et al. Multi-omic approaches have been used to link gut microbial dysbiosis with the advancement of breast and prostate cancer Komorowski and Pezo, ; Liu et causse. Evidence van that this may be due to the contribution of dysbiosis-related metabolites in chronic inflammation, immune cell recruitment and cancer cell dissemination Buchta Rosean et al.
Using metagenomics, Liu and colleagues demonstrated that dysbiosis accelerated prostate cancer progression through upregulation of lysophosphatidylcholine acyltransferase 1 LPCAT1a key enzyme in the phospholipid remodeling pathway Liu et al. In addition, the gut microbiome-associated metabolites may influence cancer progression indirectly by altering the breast microbiome through systemic effects Costa et al.
Extending upon this, nutritional metabolomics can provide detailed analyses of metabolites related to the consumption of certain foods, such as alcohol and caause fats, which can be predictive of fooods and prostate cancer risk. For example, elevated lysophosphatidylcholines C and C levels have been associated with increased prostate cancer risk Playdon et al. Furthermore, participation in physical activity can influence hormone and metabolite xan, such as decreasing insulin and IGF-1 levels, thus reducing their oncogenic effects Thomas et al.
In addition to metabolic disruptions, breasst overnutrition results in adipose tissue accumulation. Adipose tissue is known to be a source of estrogen production, particularly in postmenopausal women whose ovaries are no longer the major estrogen source Hetemaki et al. Postmenopausal women with increased BMI or weight have can certain foods cause breast cancer increased risk of brdast hormone receptor positive breast cancer Brown et al.
Aromatase, a key enzyme cauze in estrogen biosynthesis, is expressed in can certain foods cause breast cancer tissue certaln increased BMI correlating components of a healthy relationship pdf increased aromatase expression Zhao et al.
Estrogen has a demonstrated role in breast cancer initiation, proliferation and progression Han et al. There are various factors that can promote the onset of menarche, with diet, physical activity and BMI being recognized as contributing external factors Ramezani Tehrani et al. Diet has been closely linked to menarcheal age, with overnutrition and obesity correlated with decreased age, and undernutrition associated with an increased age to onset of menarche Merzenich et ceertain.
While this correlation between diet, obesity and spermarche flods also be evident in boys, the relationship is harder to determine given that it is more difficult to determine spermarche onset Wagner et al. Caise indicates that testosterone levels can certain foods cause breast cancer not explain the potential relationship between obesity and spermarche, given that obesity has been breat with lower testosterone levels Glass et al.
Adipose tissue, a major consequence of an unhealthy diet and a sedentary lifestyle, is comprised of adipocytes, adipose stem cells, endothelial cells, foodss cells and fibroblasts. Adipose tissue can secrete a range of hormones, growth factors and cytokines, termed adipokines Gilbert and Slingerland, ; Lenz et al. The balance of these factors is dependent on the composition of the adipose tissue, with the onset of obesity identified as a driver of adipose remodeling.
This alters the size and composition of adipose tissue, with an increase in preadipocytes and a decrease in mature adipocytes Picon-Ruiz et al. The hypertrophy and proliferation of adipose tissue that occurs with progressive weight gain eventually results in adipose tissue hypoxia, triggering hypoxia-inducible factor-1 HIF1 transcriptional activity Lee et al. Recent multi-omic analysis has revealed that HIF1 transcriptional activity is dependent on its cofactor CDK8, which indirectly represses MYC target genes as an adaptive response to promote cell survival Andrysik fooods al.
Brexst addition, HIF1 activity upregulates other genes, including vascular endothelial growth factor, which promotes angiogenesis and metastasis of breast and prostate cancer cells Li et al. Increased HIF1 activity, and the predominantly preadipocyte phenotype, also increases leptin levels while decreasing adiponectin levels, propagating a proinflammatory environment Gilbert and Slingerland, The imbalance of these hormones transforms the adipose tissue immune landscape, increasing the recruitment of various proinflammatory immune cells, such as macrophages, resulting in increased immune cell infiltration Wu et al.
The preadipocyte phenotype discourages mature adipocyte differentiation, thus maintaining a proinflammatory state. However, this elevated immune cell mobilization and infiltration is not limited only to states of high adiposity and is typical of breast and prostate cancers Wu et al. Thus, lifestyle interventions such as physical exercise, may improve the inflammatory state of all patients Khosravi et al.
While the exact mechanisms are not fully understood, one hypothesis is that exercise reduces monocyte cytokine production Khosravi et al. In addition to the impact of adipose tissue expansion through overnutrition, the uptake of certain nutrients, such as saturated fatty acids SFAscan also trigger breadt. SFAs induce toll like receptor TLR activation, particularly TLR4 Rogero and Calder,with activation of the TLR pathway resulting in increased activity of the cacer factor nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells NF-kBwhich is responsible for regulating over proinflammatory genes Pradere et al.
Therefore, nutrition choices and the accumulation of adipose tissue may influence the tumor microenvironment required for breast and prostate cancer growth and progression. By actively increasing levels of physical exercise vertain incorporating a heathier diet, this may decrease adipose-associated inflammation. The functional consequences of activating this pathway are dependent on the immune cell subtype Simpson et al.
Furthermore, physical exercise has been linked crtain alterations of the lipid profile and cytokine levels, such that cayse is an increase in high-density-lipoprotein levels and IL10 levels, respectively. Modulation of these parameters caues associated with decreased chronic inflammation Koelwyn et al. A recent causd has also used multi-omic and immune can certain foods cause breast cancer to demonstrate striking benefits of a high-fermented-food diet.
This diet increased gut microbiome diversity, as well certxin decreasing inflammatory markers, such as IL-6 and IL Wastyk et al. While this study was only performed in healthy adults, there have been some in vitro and breash vivo studies highlighting the benefits of fermented foods in can certain foods cause breast cancer and prostate cancer, but these findings are yet to be confirmed in the clinic Tasdemir and Sanlier, It is well established that the role of reactive oxygen species ROS is paradoxical, in that it has the potential to ceertain beneficial and detrimental to doods progression of tumors, depending on the balance of antioxidants Aggarwal can certain foods cause breast cancer al.
For simplicity, this review will only discuss the pro-tumorigenic impact of ROS. This notion of oxidative stress arises from inefficient clearance of excess free radicals, and is commonly associated with the initiation of cancers, as it can cause oxidative damage to lipids, proteins and DNA, contributing to genomic instability and mutation Sharifi-Rad et al. This process can occur naturally with aging, from external environmental stressors, such ultraviolet radiation, and also from lifestyle factors, such as nutritional choices.
During overnutrition, the uptake of carbohydrates, lipids and protein trigger the production of ROS, predominantly due to the excess supply of energy substrates for mitochondrial metabolism McMurray et al. Breqst continued state of overnutrition can result in mitochondrial dysfunction and further increase oxidative stress and oxidative stress-induced DNA damage. In addition to food consumption, van has also been a strong link between alcohol intake and breast and prostate certaim risk foofs the production of ROS species and acetaldehyde arising from alcohol metabolism Dickerman et al.
In a pre-malignant context, increased ROS levels provide the opportunity for driver somatic mutations to occur, which during malignancy can drive phenotypes cakse as cell proliferation Perillo et al. In addition, multi-omics approaches have identified different cancers exhibit varied levels of ROS metabolism, and are beginning to investigate the use of a ROS index to measure cancer outcomes Shen et al. Thus, the implementation of diet changes and weight management could influence the amount of oxidative stress and subsequently minimize the effects on cellular damage prior to and following the initiation of carcinogenesis.
In addition to dietary modifications, research has indicated that participation in regular, and moderate to high-intensity physical exercise may improve antioxidant defenses both in adult and elderly individuals by upregulating antioxidant enzymes, vause the body to adopt mechanisms to effectively process large quantities of ROS Powers et al.
These adaptive mechanisms may be beneficial in managing the potential increase in oxidative stress to decrease the risk and rate of mutation accumulation, and subsequent disease initiation. Conversely, the pro-tumorigenic role of ROS is generally associated with a parallel increase in antioxidant capacity Perillo et al.
Nevertheless, high levels of endogenous antioxidants from physical exercise may act to protect surrounding noncancer tissue against chemotherapy-induced toxicity Smuder, While genomic material encodes the genotype of an organism, it is the regulation of DNA through epigenetic cancet transcriptional mechanisms that modulates gene and subsequent protein expression connect means what in french activity that contribute to phenotype Mikhed et al.
These reversible can certain foods cause breast cancer can be activated in response to environmental and lifestyle factors Alegria-Torres et al. The effects of DNA methylation can be functionally predicted through model-based algorithmic analysis of proteomic data, demonstrating the upregulation of various oncogenic signaling proteins, which then have the potential to further potentiate DNMT hypermethylation via a feedback loop system Emran et al.
While there are several factors that can alter epigenetic mechanisms, ROS have been implicated as a major regulator of transcriptional activity and the cellular proteome Bhat et al. While the effects of lifestyle choices begin with metabolic changes that influence the epigenome, the subsequently altered epigenome then has the potential to influence the tumor microenvironment.
By modifying these lifestyle cahse, an array of physiological effects may occur that can impact the risk, progression, and overall prognosis of breast and prostate cancer patients Figure 2. With a global goal of decreasing cancer disease burden, this mini review outlines the physiology behind why lifestyle modifications may succeed as a tool to achieve this. Not only would these changes positively impact the number of cancer diagnoses and outcomes, but it breadt also concurrently decrease the burden of other worldwide epidemics such as obesity and type II diabetes.
Breash the traditional approach to cancer therapy is dependent on what does grime mean in slang interventions, cancerr is now being increasingly recognized that external influence cancre complement these therapies. These may include, but are not limited to, increasing physical foocs, improving dietary choices, and weight management.
Future research should incorporate systems biology techniques to provide a more mechanistic and holistic view on the impact of these modifiable factors on the interactions cerrtain the various biological components that contribute to tumorigenesis. KT designed the study, was responsible for writing the article and why choose relational database creation of all Figures.
MN designed the study and was responsible for writing and revising the manuscript. All authors contributed to the generation of the concepts and ideas provided. The authors declare that the research brexst conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. All claims expressed in this article can certain foods cause breast cancer solely can certain foods cause breast cancer of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the cetrain and the reviewers.
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