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Kevin L. Anthropology Dept. This paper explores the trends in northwestern European rock art theory since World War Two. Many of the same issues and developments that occurred generally in archaeology have been present during this period, both in northwestern European and in international rock art studies. As Whitley and Loendorf have noted, archaeology during the last half of the nineteenth century responded to the positivist program by incorporating the geological principles of stratigraphy, uniformitarianism, Darwinian biological evolutionism, and cultural evolutionism.
Philology was displaced and rock art research became marginal to a discipline increasingly focused on the techniques of stratigraphic excavation Whitley and Loendorf xi-xii. The struggle over the place of stylistic analysis as opposed to physical approaches to dating rock art is at this moment a fiercely contested issue due to the temporarily halted, but threatened, flooding of the Coa Valley petroglyphs in Portugal, claimed to be stylistically of Upper Paleolithic age Zilhao ; Dorn The body of ethnohistoric what are the different theories of art archaeological evidence suggesting that rock art was made by shamen after vision experiences in many parts of the world has made David Lewis-Williams and Thomas DowsonÕs "neuropsychological" model of rock art a predominant one at this time.
The model has been "transplanted" to a European context in both France, Britain and Ireland. In Ireland, innovations on this model by Timothy Dronfieldsuggest a statistical methodological approach is also possible. Richard Bradley, has "transplanted" the North American concept of the sacred landscape Molyneaux to northwestern Europe and has generated a reemphasis and a renewed focus on the reconstruction of past environmental conditions and the physical landscape.
Bradley, Valcarce and Boado have undertaken a pilot study in Galicia, north-west Spain, viewing rock art research as a type of landscape archaeology. An attempt at post-modern "text" based interpretation has been undertaken with regard to figurative rock art by Christopher Tilley with remarkably unconvincing results. In France, spectacular finds of new parietal art have demonstrated the importance of AMS dating for establishing chronology Clottes WallerÕs research suggests that cave paintings may have been deliberately placed in locations acoustically best suited for drumming and the playing of music.
Whitley and Loendorf have argued that MalleryÕsnineteenth century approach to rock art was very influential in rock art studies during most of this century. Since a formal evolutionary approach was at odds with theoretical trends in archaeology as a whole in the twentieth century, this helped lead to the marginalization of rock art research Whitley and Loendorf xii. Julian Stewardadopted MalleryÕs formal and classifactory approach in his rock art studies in the far west.
Steward shunned the use of ethnographic information for interpretation as "speculative" Steward As indicated in chapter one, Steward would later reintroduce evolutionist thinking in archaeology in the Õs and Õs Steward Heizer what are the different theories of art Baumhoff adopted the view that rock art followed an evolution from simplicity to complexity and introduced "hunting magic" as an explanation just as the French were rejecting it Whitley and Loendorf xii.
Later faunal analysis in France by Delporte indicated that the animals most represented in the Upper Paleolithic parietal art were not the animals used as food e. This certainly posed a problem for the persuasiveness of the hunting magic hypothesis. The radiocarbon revolution and dendrochronology combined to marginalize rock art as an area of archaeology which fell out of the dateable record Whitley and Loendorf xii. For most of the past fifty years rock art has been dated stylistically and that is still the primary means available in many areas of the world.
For example Johnston has pointed out that in Ireland:. The broad date range for rock art in Britain and Ireland which is what are the different theories of art accepted is based what are the different theories of art stylistic affinities between rock art and various motifs in other, dateable contexts such as megalithic tombs and cist burials.
Irish rock art is generally considered to be later Neolithic in date, though perhaps extending into the earlier Bronze Age. This places it somewhere between - b. As Paul Bahn has noted, in after the Upper Paleolithic cave of Lascaux was discovered, the stylistic dating of the cave was done by the abbe Breuil and Denis Peyrony. When both reached the same conclusion that it was Perigordian, Breuil said to Peyrony "Topez-la" its a dealthey shook hands, and the cave was Perigordian for 20 years.
This period in rock art studies is in many respects analogous to the culture-history period for archaeology in general. Stylistic studies using the precedent of ceramic analysis, lithic analysis, and seriation, described and then dated rock art to different relative time periods based upon stylistic criteria. These stylistic chronologies were sometimes built on superficial characteristics and the assumptions and accuracy of some of that eraÕs work have been called into question by "absolute dating" developments since then Clottesand a reexamination of the assumption that style necessarily reflects chronology Johnston Proponents of the neuropsychological theory have pointed out that ethnohistorical sources indicate that different styles are made contemporaneously to reflect the different experiences encountered during altered states of consciousness Whitley For example, incised and en toto styles may both be used by contemporary rock artists.
Whitley has urged caution regarding using a stylistic approach generally, and he has class diagram relationships in uml with examples that studies of altered states of consciousness predict imagery that:.
We should then expect a corpus of shamanistic art that may combine iconic and geometric motifs; incorporate polychromatic and monochromatic paintings, or fully pecked, outline-pecked, and fine line engravings; vary from simple to complex graphic imagery; exhibit considerable variation in graphic conventions for example, solid outlining versus dotted borders ; and include a relatively wide range of subject matter for example, from "nonrepresentational" what is cognitive appraisal theory of emotion zoomorphic and anthropomorphic themes.
Instead of signaling different cultural-historical styles, that is, attributes such as these may be expected as the internal variation within a specific rock art style" Whitley Whitley has advocated a realist, rationalist approach to scientific method for rock art studies instead of the mid-century logical positivist approach Whitley and Loendorf xiii. In North America, the stylistic approach to rock art resulted in large areas being divided into stylistic regions Grant Minnesota, for example, was placed at the center of three large rock art regions, the northern Woodlands, the Great Plains and the eastern Woodlands.
The stylistic dating of petroglyphs and correlation with datable excavation artifacts where carbon 14 dating is available still stands as the only means available for chronological classification in Minnesota because the bedrock has been tested, at least at the Jeffers site, and is not amenable to the absolute dating techniques used elsewhere Whitley ; Lothson Using the presence or absence of copper age tanged projectile points, lunate forms, and atlatls with finger loops and banner stones, is still the most reasonable dating method for this area.
The New Archaeology in the Õs with its emphasis on technology and environment did embrace the view that ideas and society were part of cultural processes but the study of processes over time and evolutionary process needed the control of chronology. Rock art was not able to provide exact dates and so a perception of the study of rock art as unscientific or unstudiable by scientific means seems to have been adopted by some Whitley and Loendorf xii. In Scotland and northern England where the symbolism of Neolithic and early bronze age rock art consists mostly of variations on the geometric themes of cup and rings and radial grooves, a primarily descriptive and almost culture- historical focus on recording, describing, and producing distribution maps was maintained Morris; Beckensall Morris was understandably concerned that there had been one hundred and fifty years of speculation about the meaning or function of this ambiguous rock art style and a plethora of suggestions had been made.
No sustained theory or interpretation was attempted beyond the listing of over possible explanations, weighted as to his own view of their plausibility. Little interpretation or explanation was undertaken and little ethnohistoric information was reviewed. Morris made an excellent effort to compare the relationship and distribution of the rock art to the environment and landscape as it would have existed during in Neolithic Britain.
The surprising recent discovery of "Cheddar Man," as well as a direct descendent who was still living in the same location some years later, indicates that the people and perhaps the ethnohistoric memories in Britain have not been totally obliterated by repeated invasions and migrations. During the Õs and early Õs Ian Hodderas a postprocessualist, pointed out that although science might be appropriate in the analysis of the material side of "material culture," it was entirely inappropriate and ineffective for the analysis of the cultural side of what are the different theories of art culture" Hodder Some processualists like Binford agreed that science was inappropriate to symbolic analysis, but then dismissed symbolic analysis.
A major advance in interpreting rock art, and in rock art theory and method, was made in the 's with the development of David Lewis-Williams and Thomas DowsonÕs interdisciplinary neuropsychological model. This is an ethnographically informed "middle range" theory. They proposed that the what are the different theories of art model, which had been developed in South Africa, could be applied to Upper Paleolithic European rock art.
Unlike the discredited idea of "sympathetic hunting magic," which Lewis-Williams argued was based on anthropologistsÕ "vague and misguided notions of Ôprimitive mentalityÕ rather than reliable ethnography," the neuropsychological model was an explicitly anthropological model based upon ethnography, medical science, laboratory findings, and Homo sapiens shared neurology Lewis-Williams ; As a scientific model it made empirical predictions that could be tested against a rock art site, which gave a means of adjudicating between competing interpretations.
Rationalist science and scientific methodology were thus applicable to the study of archaeological cognition. The ethnographically informed interpretation of the San rock paintings as the product of shamen who later depicted their visions and hallucinations during altered states of consciousness ASC designed to obtain power, turned out to have unexpectedly broad and global application. Ethnographies from around the world, frequently neglected by archaeologists in the past, now could be seen to refer directly or through metaphorical references to the connection between shamen, vision quests, and rock art.
The issues of epistemology, ontology, and metaphysics in archaeology that were the subjects of lengthy debates between processualists of the new archaeology like Binford and the post- processualists like Hodderand Shanks and Tilley were viewed as resolvable by Whitley if the post-processual criticisms of processual methodology were acknowledged as mostly correct, the need for scientific rigor and explanation sought by the New Archaeology was preserved, and a realist, rationalist approach was taken to analysis using scientific methodology to "achieve interpretive and symbolic explanations" Whitley xv.
Whitley viewed the neuropsychological and ethnohistoric approach to rock art studies of Lewis-Williams and Dowson to be at "the methodological forefront of archaeology in general" since it "has conjoined the opposing positions in this increasingly rebarbative debate" Whitley xv. A cognitive archaeology which is to be scientific and hermeneutic "suggests that archaeology fundamentally is an interpretive endeavor, but one in which scientific method and heuristic play their part" Whitley What are the different theories of art art is a physical remnant of prehistoric behavior related to subjective experiences and products of the human mind such as myths, institutions, beliefs, etc.
Whitley PositivismÕs emphasis on "immediately perceived" sense data was criticized by postpositivists or realists as too narrow since many material phenomena can only be indirectly observed, all sense data are theoretically informed, and science should not be defined as simply empirical or methodological since by necessity our senses incorporate presuppositions and generalities ibid Once it is acknowledged that humans fundamentally tend to perceive what they are looking for and frequently do not perceive what they are not educated to see, it becomes important to make presuppositions consciously explicit and subject to debate, or the unspoken and unexamined presuppositions become "embedded" into "the fabric of the field" e.
The positivist idea that one crucial falsifying or verifying test is possible has also been criticized as simplistic and therefore a what are the different theories of art or means of validation based upon "inference to the best hypothesis" is needed since many ideas have evidence both confirming and disconfirming them ibid. If paradigm shifts occur when a new theory matches the empirical evidence better, implicit theoretical disputes may be masked by what appears to be an what are the five types of database models and methodological debate.
A post-positivist philosophy of science does not "imply only a single approach to research" ibid. Rationalist cognitive archaeology has a goal and a set of principles for comparing rival theories and recognizes that ontological theories are "true or false by virtue of how the world actually is, independent of ourselves," but that scientific truth is "only progressively approximating the real truth per se" ibid.
The set of principles for comparing rival theories include observational nesting or preserving past observational success of prior theories while improving upon them, fertility or guidance for future development, track record or the record of accumulated success of the theory, inter-theory support, smoothness or accounting for observational anomalies, internal consistency, compatibility with well-grounded metaphysical beliefs, and simplicity Newton-Smith ; Whitley Rock art theorists like Whitley, Lewis-Williams, Dowson, Clottes, and Dronfield have been ahead of archaeology as a whole in using anthropological, testable, rock art theories that model the relationships between human neuropsychology to rock art sites using good "middle range" theory that is grounded in the post- positivist, realist, and rationalist philosophy of science.
The renewed focus on ethnohistoric sources is also a part of this "theory based" form of anthropological archaeology, and so the post-modern crisis of confidence in social-cultural anthropology about the problem of doing ethnographic fieldwork is of some concern. Multiple regression simple example have long recognized the problems of ethnography and the difficulties of obtaining accurate and understandable information about beliefs, values, and meanings directly from informants who may not be able to articulate meaning or beliefs, may use metaphoric language, may themselves misunderstand cultural symbols, may be disinclined to articulate them, or may intentionally mislead and make false statements Whitley Geertz has even taken a position favoring observation of public events as a means of accessing cultural symbolic systems Geertz Viewing ethnographic accounts critically and as a raw data set containing multiple sources can alleviate some of the concerns regarding the construction of truth that has caused the current crisis of confidence in post-modern ethnography.
Up to this point they have been largely ignored and have rarely been used even by the anthropological archaeologists. The entry of desert varnish, carbon 14, Accelerated Mass Spectrometry AMSthermoluminescence, and chlorine 36 dating has been heralded perhaps prematurely as causing a "Post-stylistic" era in the study of rock art, with conferences and publications e. Bahn that discuss the effect of absolute dating techniques on the primary place that stylistic analysis has had in the what are the different theories of art of rock art.
Several of the most important people in rock art studies have given opinions on whether or not the petroglyphs are from the Paleolithic period. Those indicating that they are stylistically Paleolithic in age include Bahn ; Clottes et al. On the other side of the argument are the radiocarbon results of Watchman ; and the microerosion arguments of Bednarik a; b; c; d suggesting a more recent age. One might ask whether or not the dam should not be stopped anyway, even if they are of a more recent age, but the era the paintings were made seems to be a determinative factor in whether or not the dam will be built.
The accuracy of various dating methods why do i have love handles if im skinny reddit been a subject of heated and public controversy. For example, Ronald Dornwho pioneered desert varnish dating, has recently taken the position that microscopic carbon 14 dating of the Coa petroglyphs in Portugal is not reliable because the layer of silica that forms over the trapped carbon is permeable.
He and Alan Watchman produced similar dates based upon carbon 14 based tests of small samples but Dorn has argued that the dates are not reliable because of this newly discovered fact. In his article he indicates the technique is not reliable because of, "evidence for the addition of younger carbon in an open system, and evidence of contamination from older sources of carbon. Using another approach based upon a different technique Phillips et al. The early assumptions of a linear stylistic evolution in Paleolithic art was already being criticized by Garcia before the recent dateable finds at Chauvet of early advanced artistic techniques.
Garcia pointed out that:. Any alteration, variation or undervaluation of these formal rules invalidates the method completely, as it destroys the framework supporting the whole deductive-chronological process of the relationship betweenstyle and date Garcia Several very significant Upper Paleolithic caves have been found in southern France during the past few years including, the now famous, Cosquer and Chauvet caves. AMS dating techniques have been used at both of these sites by Jean Clottes et al.
It was initially argued, for example, that no Upper Paleolithic artist could have done the paintings at Chauvet because they show an understanding of perspective. AMS dating of many paintings and the circumstances of the finds conclusively established their Upper Paleolithic age Clottes et al. The AMS technique involved physicists removing about half a milligram of charcoal directly from the painting.
Sincetwenty-five dates from paintings in five caves including Chauvet, Cosquer, Cougnac, Le Portel, and Niaux have been taken and several caves dated to other time periods by other methods have been corrected. The French are also refocusing their studies from the paintings to the context of the cave and environmental questions which have often been overlooked in the past Clottes