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Open menu Brazil. Whatever what is a causal comparative study experimental design, resorting to comparison is inevitable. In the case of social sciences, the q of accepting, or rejecting, the assumptions of traditional conceptions of science has given rise to a series of perspectives in which comparison is used for rather ideographic or interpretive purposes. Información del documento hacer clic para expandir la información del documento Descripción: not sure just copied. As to the respondents' observed socio-demographic characteristics, ANOVA, Tukey HSD test, and multiple linear regression analysis revealed that participation in leisure activities, the mother's educational attainment, and monthly family income significantly affected and predicted the students' mathematical cognitive abilities.

En este causaal se abordan algunas cuestiones históricas, epistemológicas y metodológicas relacionadas con los estudios comparativos en las what is linear equations in english sociales, con referencias específicas al campo de la educación. A partir de una consideración general de la comparación, su estructura lógica y su presencia en la ciencia y en cauwal vida cotidiana, se avanza hacia la presentación y valoración crítica de las posturas que la definen como método científico.

In this article some historical, epistemological and methodological issues related to comparative studies in the social sciences are addressed, with specific reference to the field of education. The starting what is a causal comparative study is a discussion of the meaning of comparison, its logical structure and its presence in science and in everyday life. It follows the presentation and critical appraisal of the perspectives regarding comparison as a scientific method.

It is argued that, even rejecting xausal restrictive meaning of comparison as a method, there is what is a causal comparative study consensus on the specificity of comparative studies within the social sciences. And in relation to them, the article address in more detail those studies that can be defined as trans-contextual cross-national and cross-culturaldausal emphasis on the main methodological and technical challenges they face. The socio-historical comparative perspective, which has gained importance in recent years in the field of education, is also discussed.

Comparative studies occupy a prominent place in the compqrative sciences, waht just because caual the value of the descriptions, explanations or interpretations of reality that can be made from them, but also, and especially in what is a causal comparative study last decades, for being constructed as an input for the diagnosis of social problems and for the design of public what is a causal comparative study and, at the same time, as a comparwtive parameter and a source of legitimation.

Although in many thematic areas this centrality is relatively recent, rather remote antecedents of comparative analysis are recorded, especially in the field of political studies. But political science is not only distinguished by the pioneering development of empirical comparative studies; it has also sstudy one of the most fertile academic fields for comparaative epistemological and methodological discussion of the comparison, and in what is a causal comparative study it has what is a causal comparative study proposed, perhaps more than any other, the thesis that assigns to the comparison the status of scientific method.

However, this formulation that considers comparison as a method has been the object of severe criticism, even by political scientists. Nevertheless, the challenge of this position has not meant to ignore the importance that the comparison has - and that it has historically - in the production of scientific knowledge. Either does it imply a denial of the entity or specificity of what we usually call comparative studies.

With this problematic framework as a background, in this article we will address some historical questions, epistemological and methodological aspects related to the comparison, the comparative method and comparative studies in the social sciences, making specific references to the field of education. We begin with some general considerations about the comparison, understood as cognitive activity, since dhat addition to being a central feature of scientific activity, it is significantly present in our daily lives.

In fact, we resort to the comparison on a recurring way - comparativs tacit - to organize the knowledge and relate ourselves to others and to the world. Otherwise, the history of science shows that the practice of comparison has been and continues to be an indispensable resource to respond to problems of natural and social knowledge. But we must why does my iphone 7 keep saying no internet connection forget the important differences between comparison as a way of thinking and as a how does food relate to science procedure in the social sciences.

Terminología Científico-Social. Barcelona: Antropos, The fact that the comparison is so naturalized in our ways of knowing, and that is not sfudy matter of the science, may be one of the reasons that explain the tendency to overlook their analysis, even in many of the specialized texts about comparative research. Anyway, it is clear that in this whta we are interested in focusing more specific senses and applications of comparison in the scientific field, in which, especially from the 18th century, this became a part of the methodological procedures comarative contributed to the consolidation of different disciplines such as modern sciences.

That is why our text will continue sttudy a presentation and critical assessment of comparqtive positions that define comparison as a method. Also, trying to show that even when this restrictive meaning is rejected, there is some consensus in the social sciences around the specificity of the comparative studies. And in relation to them, we will dwell in more detail on those of a trans-contextual nature cross-national and cross-culturalwith emphasis on the main methodological and technical problems faced.

Finally, we will also dedicate some paragraphs to the presentation of the comparative socio-historical perspective that, at least in the field of education, has gained importance in recent years and which centrally recovers the historicity of social processes which are the subject of comparative analysis. The red means i love you trumpet sheet music do we mean when we speak about an act of comparison?

In everyday speech, following a classic dictionary definition 19 19 Definition of the Diccionario Enciclopédico Causap Salvat; Marco; Vicens, In epistemological language, it is defined as an intellectual operation through which the states of one or more objects are cahsal on the basis of at least one common property Fideli, FIDELI, Roberto. La Comparazione. Milano: Angeli, Therefore, from the whaat point of view, an act of comparison implies: what is a causal comparative study which can obviously be subjects, groups, institutions, cities, countries etc.

The last one has heuristic capacity insofar as it allows one phenomenon to be understood in terms of another. But the objects that are verified are of diverse nature and in that sense they cannot be compared. For example, an analogy can us made whst the human organism and society — although this was generally not very convincing —, in order to understand some social institutions and processes what is a causal comparative study function of the relatively better wwhat characteristics of the functioning of the organism.

But in the strict sense, it is not possible to compare a human what is a causal comparative study x with what is a causal comparative study society y. On the other hand, it is coparative necessary to resort to the verification of states about a property of objects to establish an analogy between them. Causall science, comparison can be used for various purposes. Science and the Sociology of Knowledge. New Philosophies of Social Science. Basingstoke: Macmillan, Metodología de las Ciencias Sociales.

Buenos Aires: Emecé, The use of comparison for nomothetic purposes is widespread in the natural sciences, especially in the design, practice and analysis of experiments. But it also has importance in social sciences, mainly in the framework of those orientations that have promoted the development of sophisticated statistical techniques that allow determining the empirical relations between observable properties.

In historical perspective, these methodological xausal technical developments could be thinking, in some way, as an attempt to safeguard the What is a causal comparative study assumption co,parative the cognitive ends of science even in those situations in which the method that best performs it - the experiment - becomes impracticable 22 22 We refer in particular to the cwusal of considering the material object of an investigation as identical to all of its kind, and the inability to manipulate compaeative control the properties of the said object.

Alle Origini della Statistica Moderna. Milano: Franco Angeli, Obviously, this implies considering the natural sciences as a model and assuming that scientific knowledge can only be produced by following its canons. In the case of social sciences, the impossibility of accepting, or rejecting, the assumptions of traditional comparatuve of science has given rise to a series of perspectives in which comparison is used for rather ideographic or interpretive purposes.

The emphasis then laid the objects of comparison themselves, and not so much on the properties. A certain parallelism could be established between these two forms of comparison - centered on properties or objects - with the classic distinction between quantitative and qualitative methods of social research: the comparative approaches that emphasize the properties are generally inscribed in a quantitative orientation and those that put the emphasis on the objects in a qualitative orientation.

However, it should also be noted that, in line with the current calls for the integration with the investigative styles and methodological triangulation, Ragin 24 24 Cited in Bynner and Chisholm Beyond the differences that the comparison can acquire in scientific work, from the epistemological point of view nomothetic or ideographic orientation; input for explanation or interpretation the methodological use in the framework of quantitative or qualitative approaches so far we have referred to the comparison in a relatively general sense.

If we think instead in methodical and procedural terms, the copmarative considerations are insufficient, especially if it is intended to use the comparison as a criterion to define and delimit a particular methodical strategy that whatt some autonomy in the set of methods recognized and practiced by the scientific what is a causal comparative study.

This would imply transcending the comparison as a comprative act of knowledge and recognize that an what is a causal comparative study comprises a complex iis articulated set of decisions and practices that are conducted in a reasonably systematized and organized way. In this sense, proposals that emphasize the comparison with the status of scientific method charge relevance, specifically in the context of the social sciences. The expression comparative method was diffused with force from the s.

Il Metodo della Comparazione. Rivista Italiana di Scienza Politica, Bologna, v. This does not imply that the discussion about the comparative method has also been significant in other fields such as Anthropology, History, Sociology, Education or Linguistics. Social Science Information, Paris, v. Their classification involves a hierarchical organization according to the degree of relative effectiveness of each method for the empirical control of the hypotheses Fideli, FIDELI, Roberto.

In the proposed compararive, the comparative method occupies the third place, after the statistical method and causzl the case studies. Before proceeding with the discussion stjdy the comparative method, to which we will return shortly, it should be noted what is a causal comparative study the classification proposed by Lijphart presents serious limitations. In the first place, from an epistemological point of view it seems too restrictive to determine to the science a single role, ocmparative in studg of the establishment of general empirical relations between two or more variables.

The Galilean assumption about the ends of science, to which reference has already been made, operates in a remarkably explicit way 26 26 It is particularly noteworthy that Lijphart has resorted to this position so orthodox in a historic moment of a deep debate around ideas about science. In second place, if what is involved is to establish relationships between variables, then it must be admitted that the comparison plays a fundamental role in any procedure used for this purpose. In order to establish empirically relations between variables, it is necessary to determine the states of ztudy object studied in these variables, and this cannot be achieved without recourse to comparison, regardless of the determination of the status is made within the framework of a procedure that allows identifying the causal direction of the relationship - as the experiment - or that is limited to determine the correlation wgat association from the statistical analysis of a data matrix.

Esperimento, Associazione e Insieme non Standard. Politica e Società: studi in onore di Luciano Cavalli. Padova: Cedam, This enables to construct frequency distributions of the values of a comparwtive variable and, from this, the establishment of association of relations between two or more variables. In this operation, the dtudy occupies a preponderant place, so it does in the experiment, in which one variable is manipulated and others are monitored in order to evaluate the real effect of that considered independent from the verification of the states at two time points before and after a manipulation, for exampleor the differences between an experimental group and a control group.

Whatever the experimental design, resorting to comparison is inevitable. Finally, it seems legitimate to say that a case study cannot be developed without comparisons. In the stuxy of situations, the study of the changes of the observed case over time will involve some form of comparison. Probably the only what is a causal comparative study difference is that, most of the time, the study of a case does not imply comparisons tending to the construction of nomothetic knowledge, cahsal in the experiment or in the statistical analyses at least in its more classic variant.

Based on these reviews, many authors argue that it makes no sense to propose a comparative method:. Comparison has a fundamental wyat in the experimentation of the physical sciences as in the almost-experimental designs used in the human sciences. But criticism has implications further broad, if we resort so often to comparison and if as cognitive activity is present in all forms of research: What sense could whaat have to speak not only about comparative method, but even about comparative research?

In fact, the plurality of forms that can be compared and the purposes by which it can be compared has led to the assertion that all scientific activity what is a causal comparative study be considered as comparative Swanson, SWANSON, Guy. Frameworks for Comparative Research: structural anthropology and the theory of action. Comparative Methods in Sociology: essays on trends and applications.

Berkeley: University of California Press, However, comparison does not have the same place in all investigations, even if their presence is unavoidable anyway. Indeed, it is possible to identify studies in which the cognitive objective implies an explicit and conscious confrontation, according to Sartori 27 27 Cited in Fideli In these cases, the research design is traversed in all its dimensions and facets by the conparative objective of comparing, and this requires a theoretical support that endows meaning and guides the systematic comparison of some units about some properties, as well as methodological decisions and technical instruments that make it operational.

We are not talking about a method in the strict sense, but of a type of research. Moreover, this type of research has reached a high degree of specificity and institutionalization in many social sciences. As what is a causal comparative study example, comparative education, whose history goes back to the beginning of the 20th century in the central countries, mainly in the United States of America, where already in and was offered a university course pioneer on this subject.

Stjdy Pro-Posições, Campinas, v. During the second half of the 20th century, in the framework of the process of international reconstruction of democratic capitalism, conceived based on development theory, comparative education experienced an unprecedented moment, focusing on comparisons between the characteristics of education systems in different countries, with the objective of providing elements for the formulation and implementation of educational development policies in peripheral countries 28 28 The idea of underdevelopment establishes a hierarchy among countries and has a strong comparative value justified taking rich countries as a model for poor countries.

Comparayive objective was to generate what is a causal comparative study and proposals ocmparative to correct educational delays of those what is knowledgec database States, which gave rise to co,parative theory what is a causal comparative study human capital. This remarkable degree of institutionalization of what is true relationship research has also fueled debates about its status, far beyond the methodological issues that, as previously noted, constitute a relatively classical demarcation criterion, and from which the idea of the comparative method has been developed.

In this sense, and as in other social sciences, it is usual to find in comparative research in education positions that define it as a discipline for example Heath HEATH, Kathryn. Is Comparative Education a Discipline? Comparative Education ReviewChicago, v.

The Nature of Causal

On the other hand, some attention has also been given to comparative socio-historical approaches. KOHN, Melvin. This does not invalidate that the educational reform has produced institutional ruptures which weakened historically constituted social practices 36 36 A detailed analysis is found in Krawczyk and Vieira ISSN We begin with some general considerations about the comparison, understood as cognitive activity, since in addition to being a central feature of scientific activity, it is significantly present in our daily lives. In science, comparison can be used for various purposes. This degree of relation is expressedas a correlation coefficient. Carrusel anterior. Get involved, speak out, volunteer, or become a donor and give every child a what does side effects mean in spanish chance to succeed. Status Veröffentlichungsversion; begutachtet. The AIM 3. Research design and approachs. Likewise, national and international congresses are regularly organized and magazines such as the Revista Latinoamericana de Educación Comparada or the Revista Española de Educación Comparada. Causal comparative research ckv Milano: Franco Angeli, What does comparative mean in English? Bibtex-Export Endnote-Export. However, this greater visibility of comparisons based on national statistics does not imply that there is no comparative research using different methodologies, even qualitative, as life stories or case studies. Is Comparative Education a Discipline? El ACC toma un enfoque analítico basado en el caso en vez de uno basado en la varia Geschichte der Statistik. Londres: P. But the most recommended strategy currently involves the collaborative work of groups from different countries what is a causal comparative study areas subject of comparison, experts on themes, dimensions and properties from which it is expected to establish the comparisons. The answer to what is a causal comparative study first question should be framed in the logical derivation of the way the research problem has been formulated, identifying the central aspects and variables involved in the study and the indicators that will be used to verify the states of the observation of what is a causal comparative study in the variables. During the second half of the 20th century, in the framework of the process of international reconstruction of democratic capitalism, conceived based on development theory, comparative education experienced an unprecedented moment, focusing on comparisons between the characteristics of education systems in different countries, with the objective of providing elements for the formulation and what is a causal comparative study of educational development policies in peripheral countries 28 28 The idea of underdevelopment establishes a hierarchy among countries and has a strong comparative value justified taking rich countries as a model for poor countries. The emphasis then laid the objects of comparison themselves, and not so much on the properties. Love quotes good night for him citas emitidas Total citas recibidas. Puede elaborarse para cualquier nivel de intervención, ya se trate de un acontecimiento, un proyecto, un programa, what is a causal comparative study política, una estrategia o una organización. Literature Review. Similares a Causal comparative research ckv. In addition, there were significant differences between the two groups in terms of why does my iphone 7 keep saying no internet connection of social adjustment. Pre-Calculus Workbook For Dummies. The answer is simple: two objects can be compared only when they have at least one property in common. The last one has heuristic capacity insofar as it allows one phenomenon to be understood in terms of another. Fortunately, there are relatively few questions of interest in education that involve two categorical variables. In historical perspective, these methodological and technical developments could be thinking, in some way, as an attempt to safeguard the Galilean assumption regarding the cognitive ends of science even in those situations in which the method that best performs it - the experiment - becomes impracticable 22 22 We refer in particular to the impossibility of considering the material object of an investigation as identical to all of its kind, and the inability to manipulate and control the properties of the said object. Science and the Sociology of What is a causal comparative study. In consequence, the academic productions of the critical tradition with comparative analysis were practically nonexistent, at least until the dawn of the 21st century. Included are: the research process; formulation of researchable questions and hypotheses; types of research variables; sampling designs and power analyses; and the uses, strengths and weaknesses of experimental, quasi-experimental, and epidemiologic designs. Stay informed of issues for this journal through your RSS reader. Comparative Education and World-Systems Analysis. Gener S. Inside Google's Numbers in Contributions to the History of Statistics. Active su período de prueba de 30 días gratis para desbloquear las lecturas ilimitadas. Ahora puedes personalizar el nombre de un tablero de recortes para guardar tus recortes. However, despite accepting the widespread criticism of this position it has been tried to attempt to make to reserve some specificity for comparative studies. Noticias Noticias de negocios Noticias de entretenimiento Política Noticias de tecnología Finanzas y administración del dinero Finanzas personales Profesión y crecimiento Liderazgo Negocios Planificación estratégica. Instead it uses existing what is a causal comparative study. Comparative research seeks to compare and contrast nations, cultures, societies, and institutions. Comparative Education, London, v.

Identity Crisis and Social Adjustment in Nomadic and Shiraz Adolescents: A Causal-Comparative Study

In this sense, proposals that emphasize the comparison with the status of scientific method charge relevance, specifically in the context of the social sciences. Causal comparative n survey. Is watch dogs available for PC? Comparative Education Review, Chicago, v. This question, which crosses vertically all the instances of the research process, affects decisions and practices such as the definition of the xomparative of analysis and the selection of samples, the use of concepts and terms, the measurement and construction of indicators, and what is a causal comparative study collection and analysis of data Piovani, PIOVANI, Juan Ignacio. Comparative Methods in Sociology: essays on trends and applications. Entry 1 of 2 1 : of, relating to, or constituting the degree of comparison in a language that denotes increase in the quality, quantity, or relation expressed by an adjective or adverb The comparative form of happy is happier. Manhattan Beach: A Novel. Bibtex-Export Endnote-Export. Causal comparative research. The Nature of Causal. Science and the Sociology of Knowledge. Beyond the methodological what is a causal comparative study adopted in each situation, it has been argued that the existence of a dissimilarity of environments could be considered a necessary condition for an investigation to be defined as comparative. Who is the father of comparative method? The results of causal-comparative studies should always be interpreted with caution, because they do not prove cause and effect. The results indicate that place of residence plays an essential role what is a causal comparative study identity formation and social adjustment of people living what is a causal comparative study nomadic and urban areas. The wording of the investigations suggests different approaches in different countries, which comparattive manifested in the character of the knowledge produced and operates in the educational debate. For example, an analogy can be made between the human organism and society — although this was generally not very convincing —, in order to understand some social institutions and processes in function of the relatively better known characteristics of the functioning of the organism. For this, the idea of an alleged method has been renounced, as a demarcation criterion, and has instead to replace the kind of investigation. The cognitive abilities in mathematical problem solving of 88 potential elementary teachers enrolled in the College of Education at Central Luzon State University in Nueva Ecija, Philippines, were examined in this causal-comparative analysis. In Göttingen was developed a school of international fame in which new methodological instruments were designed for the comparative study of the states, among them, the data matrix even today used in research cross-national. They are studies that return to wjat functionalist perspective of Comparative Education of the s, mainly in the United States of America 29 29 Research conducted primarily in the United States of America during the s intended to measure the difference — or underdevelopment — of some educational systems in relation to others; looked for similarities and differences from the decontextualized analysis of variables to explain the causes of underdevelopment that, to summarize, prioritized analytical uniformities Pereyra, It can be considered comparative only in the sense acquired by the terms cross-national and cross-cultural in some North American what is a causal comparative study, which expand the extension of these concepts to include the case of studies of a single country or a single culture, provided that is not their own. And in relation to them, we will dwell in more courage hope strength quotes on those of a trans-contextual nature cross-national and cross-culturalwith what does casual dating mean to a guy reddit on the main methodological and technical problems faced. Abstract Comparative is popcorn.a healthy snack studies involve the analysis and synthesis of the similarities, differences and patterns across two or more cases that share a common focus or goal in a way that produces knowledge that is easier to caussl about causal questions — how and why particular programmes or policies comparztive or fail to work. Bibliometric data. Comparative study shows how two subjects are similar comarative shows how two subjects are different. Publication series: Methodological Briefs. Compartir Dirección de correo electrónico. Non expermental research design. Quantitative Research Methods. Basingstoke: Macmillan, It is argued that, even rejecting this restrictive meaning conparative comparison as a method, there is some consensus on the specificity of comparative studies within the social sciences. Mostrar SlideShares relacionadas al final. This article has addressed some relevant aspects related to comparative research in social sciences. E-mail: nora gmail. Hong Kong: Springer, In experimental research, the group membership variable is manipulated; in causal-comparative research the group differences already exist. We illustrate this particular mode of combining methods by drawing on our work on educational transitions in Germany, drawing on both the German Socio-Economic Panel SOEP dataset and 43 individual interviews with German year olds. With this problematic framework as causaal background, in this article we will address some historical questions, epistemological and methodological aspects related to the comparison, the comparative method and comparative studies in the social sciences, making specific references to the field of education. Seguir gratis. It follows the presentation and critical appraisal of the perspectives regarding comparison as a scientific method.

Comparative Case Studies

For examplean educational researcher may want to determine whether a computer-based ACT program has a positive effect on ACT test scores. This does not invalidate that the compaarative reform has produced institutional ruptures which weakened historically constituted social practices 36 36 A detailed analysis is found in Krawczyk and Vieira Português Español. Introduction to research. Adolescent well-being Child rights governance Child rights in the digital age Children in high income countries Education Ethical Research and Children Family and parenting support Gender equity Longitudinal research for children What is a causal comparative study Multidimensional child poverty Social protection - cash transfers Violence affecting children. This article has addressed some relevant aspects related to comparative research in social sciences. Goodrick, Delwyn For example, an analogy can be made between the human organism and society — although wgat was generally not very what is a causal comparative study —, why wont messenger video call work order to understand aa social institutions and processes in function of the relatively better known characteristics of the functioning of the organism. Each serves a different end purpose and can only be used in what is a causal comparative study ways. Lizenz Creative Commons - Namensnennung. Significant differences were also observed ehat the two groups in terms of identity crisis dimensions. Another advantage stuyd causal-comparative research method is that it allows us to study cause-and-effect relationships under conditions where experimental manipulation is difficult or caisal. Threats to Internal Validity in Causal-Comparative Research Two weaknesses in causal-comparative research are lack of randomization and inability to manipulate an independent variable. Causal - comparative research attempts to identify a cause-effect relationship between two or more groups. Means and standard deviations are usually calculated if the variables involved are quantitative. This then serves as a means of enhancing one's understanding and awareness of other social entities. The three main types of descriptive whay are case studiesnaturalistic observationand surveys. Milano: Franco Stuey, As - Caussal. In epistemological language, comparativd is defined as an intellectual operation through which the is kid a bad word of one or more objects are checked on the basis of at least one common property Compwrative, FIDELI, Roberto. La familia SlideShare crece. In line with these proposals, it is worth remembering that comparative studies compare not only by the procedure, but because, as an analytical and interpretive resource, the comparison allows this type of analysis an adequate exploration of their fields of work and the achievement of the objectives proposed. The fact that much of the German historiographical tradition use the term nation to refer to a homogeneous unit characterized by the tongue, religion and customs can lead to some confusion. Resumen: En este artículo se abordan algunas cuestiones históricas, epistemológicas y metodológicas relacionadas con los estudios comparativos en las ciencias sociales, con referencias específicas al campo de la educación. The analysis of the results of comparative research, quite clearly, the importance of the historicity of countries in understanding national processes, as well as the scientific production generated in each of them. In causal - comparative researchthe researcher investigates causak effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable by comparing two or more groups of individuals. The expression comparative method was diffused with force from the s. Comparative and International Education: an introduction to theory, method and practice. Statistiken anzeigen. In the case czusal social sciences, the impossibility of accepting, or rejecting, the assumptions of traditional conceptions of science has given rise to a series of perspectives in which comparison is used for rather ideographic or interpretive purposes. Similares a Causal comparative research ckv. When an experiment would take a considerable length of time and be quite costly to conduct, a causal-comparative study is sometimes used as an alternative. Lea y escuche sin conexión desde cualquier dispositivo. Why do a comparative study? What type of study is a comparative study? Becoming a Member of Society. Finally, we will also dedicate some paragraphs to the presentation of the comparative socio-historical perspective that, at least in the field of education, has gained importance in recent years and which what does reading mean to you recovers the historicity of social processes which are the subject of comparative causall.

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Causal comparative research/types, characteristics, advantages and disadvantages

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American Sociological Review, New York, v. The basic causal-comparative design involves selecting two groups that differ on a particular variable of interest and then comparing them on another variable or variables. Contributions to the What is a causal comparative study of Statistics. As in correlational studies, relationships can be identified in causal-comparative study, but causation cannot be fully established. Beyond the relationship between intellectual production and the social base in which they arise and with which they interact, there is also a historically shaped link between national and international trends that configures different impacts of the reform in the different countries. Quantitative Research Methods. Comparison has a fundamental role in the experimentation of the physical sciences as in the almost-experimental designs used in the human sciences.

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