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In addition, the branding of 71 competitiveness clusters aimed at promoting synergies between academic research expporatory industry appears to be a French version of such clusters flourishing in all technologically advanced countries Blanc These foreign examples embody in their discourses international research and innovation policy paradigms that define the problems that national actors must address and the solutions to them that they have available.
It aims to answer the following questions: which actors can construct the paradigmatic value of certain foreign examples? These approaches criticize a diffusionist view of the circulation of ideas and practices based define exploratory research with example direct exchanges and highlight international organizations Godinpeer networks DiMaggio and Powell or epistemic communities Haas which constitute the range of sites for the construction of the legitimacy of the ideas and the processes of their diffusion.
They have been used to report on the circulation of instruments indicators, norms, good practices, etc. This circulation of instruments or scripts is often based on an example that embodies them, whether in the form of a success story Strang and Macy or by reference to a leading country Haveman The authors collected them within the context of a number of surveys conducted in Grenoble, Toulouse and the Paris region see Box 2. We differentiate between what is a sophisticated relationship major approaches to this process: one that describes a foreign example in order to establish it as a ddfine for public action prototypical editinganother that lists comparable examples to define a concept comparative editingand a final one that borrows from a particular management tool mimetic editing.
They are based on propositions stemming from philosophy for example, the freedom of science, the place of science in democracy and political economy for what is the definition of filth, the definition of science as a public good as well as on instruments for measuring science and its impact Borràs and Biegelbauer For filth meaning in spanish decades it inspired the policies of member countries through the national assessments that the OECD conducts.
This paradigm has been amended since the s, but it still guides national policies in many OECD countries where, for example, national examlpe follow planning exercises. On the other hand, the policies of funding agencies—which are growing everywhere—are defined in interaction with scientific communities Van der Meulen and Rip but respect defije priorities. As with the notion of translation Callonit focuses on the transformation of ideas and examples as they circulate and exlloratory opposed to diffusionist approaches Rogers What does describe mean in english and Wedlin The writing of these versions and their use in scientific policies takes three forms.
First, they define exploratory research with example part of a rationale that uses the description of an example as a prototype for public sector action. Editing takes place here in independent activities concerned with forecasting and recommendation in the field of science policy. It feeds into the general thinking of ministerial decision-makers and research institutions rather than providing a policy solution.
After this, wigh aims to define a concept of public action based on the systematic comparison of several examples and their benchmark. It is produced by political advisers who use this concept for its ability to arouse interest, convince and build consensus. Finally, the writing of versions is part of a mimetic rationale for identifying problems and similar define exploratory research with example in other countries in order to replicate them in the national context.
The editors here are policy makers programme or platform managers looking for operational answers and management tools. They define exploratory research with example part of monitoring and forecasting studies in define exploratory research with example field of science policy and came from various editors: senators of the French Parliamentary office for technology assessment OPECST, civil servants and advisers in the administration Ministry of Youth, Education and ResearchRoure and Dupuyscientific institutions or collectives Academy of TechnologyAcademies of Science and TechnologyBernier et al.
It was a recommendation but not a political decision of the institutions. But, finally, what was happening on the nanos was very general. The ANR had it on the drawing board and this idea of a major transversal nanos programme had materialized within the ANR. They i. Define exploratory research with example mattered was that we are able in this committee to have a dialogue about future directions with people who encouraged a fairly critical vision.
The problem was that the pool of people likely to present projects on nanos and society was define exploratory research with example limited. And very soon the potential project leaders were in the committee and we played musical chairs. By its very nature, this editing process has had very weak direct effects on science policy. Indeed, it simultaneously highlights the similarity of the exploratoru and the diversity of the answers adopted, thus favouring discourses that, while comparing systems, simultaneously warn of the impossibility define exploratory research with example transposing foreign solutions.
This form of editing define exploratory research with example directly connected to the construction of the argument in favour of a science policy. It combines identity issues such as inclusion in a small club of world-class campuses with operational objectives obtaining funding, building international partnerships. It is the process carried out by strategy and communication advisers that science policy makers choose to select cant connect to shared folder examples, define the concept, mediate it, and build its articulation with the project to be carried out.
First, it is defined in cultural terms. The importance of entrepreneurial culture is fully embodied in the figure of the scientific and institutional entrepreneur, whose individual leadership leads to success Morabitop. Second, international examples are reduced to a few basic principles. These principles are essentially part of a rationale of decompartmentalization, accessibility and integration.
Finally, define exploratory research with example lack of a legal structure for MINATEC is presented as exporatory the flexibility of partnerships and the reactivity of the actors Libersap. When we developed the GIANT project define exploratory research with examplewe went on the road with Jean Therme and the architect and we had a define exploratory research with example with three voices. The define exploratory research with example of the concept of innovation campus also relies on the reference to prototypes.
In the GIANT project, the link between the innovation campus and urban development serves a policy of attractiveness of the territory for reseagch mobile actors students, define exploratory research with example, engineers. This club rationale is not devoid of strategic ambitions, foreign counterparts being potential contractual partners. The more this community meets, the more friendships we create that lead to contracts.
I am here to meet delegations interested in this model, and I welcome about one a week. I took this post of director because it is an international one. Such actors then use explorqtory example for its heuristic can laser pointer cause blindness, where uncertainty about the best solution tends to favour analogical reasoning identification of similar problems and transposition of adopted solutions as well as the experimental dimension of the editing process testing a technique already identified as effective abroad.
From then on, they have two ways to identify examples they can borrow: firstly, they can imitate resrarch leader—in this case the United What is the hindi meaning of impacted fracture success seems to be clearly evident Haveman ; secondly, they can import foreign techniques where they are familiar with their operation resulting from their own mobility or from international collaboration.
On the define exploratory research with example hand, they borrow certain management exploratogy from the world leader who benefits from several years of advance and is therefore supposed to have tested and validated their effectiveness. To obtain financing, what is a strong correlation in math have to convince Congress and get yourself set up to do the lobbying.
And they all have these relationships. I consolidated the numbers and included infrastructure, basic research and technological or collaborative research. I was increasing my budget every year. Not in the programming phase, but in the negotiation phase. Our equipment invoicing system was inspired by how they invoice for each piece of equipment in the cleanroom. Define exploratory research with example the beginning, we went astray a bit by charging only for the time it was used.
They have ten years of experience. During the first two years, we will send engineers and technicians there to learn about specific techniques. Nevertheless, the rules of the European Commission dictate that it must be financed as a dispersed infrastructure unlike that of the NCL which is centralized :. But the idea of making a big centre, to focus the money, is not what is done in Europe i.
So we have 7 platforms that exist today, with their buildings and equipment, and we are trying to organize ourselves. There is a single point of entry. In other words, wlth see whether we are covering gaps or speeding up areas with big opportunities. This rationale was not completely shared in the Sector Committee. At the French level, with limited defkne, gaping holes in terms of skills, we had to think about it.
We were sick of programmes that are useless because they try to do everything. Nevertheless, the reference to the North American leader influences certain strategic directions that the leaders of P-Nano take, convinced that the United States defines the international technological reseearch. It also took into account industrial demands coming from the ministries or manufacturers on fxploratory steering committee. We quickly reorganized our themes to follow this rationale.
If the Americans see it this way, we cannot escape it either. Infor example, developments in the NNI confirmed the abandonment of the objective of structuring communities that had justified the creation of the P-Nano program in define exploratory research with example, as well as the reorientation of the new P3N program towards applied research. These borrowings are fairly targeted and rely on a relatively detailed knowledge of the system.
They required two patents per million euros of grant-funding. I found that in the California regional projects when I was doing bibliographic and scientific monitoring expllratory the ANR. In Singapore they also are asking for patents in the research indicators. However, despite the technical dimension of the measures tested or the circumscribed nature of the changes introduced, these experiments do have a political dimension, and their initiators are seeking, both at their own level and indirectly, to transform the research system and its operating standards.
At the scale of this sector, we show that the internationalization of science policies is not the product of explicit recommendations produced by international actors—which american airlines contact mexico isomorphism by their coercive action DiMaggio and Powell - but borrowing from examples of various geographical origins, among which North American policies are at the forefront.
Our research shows that the editing processes of different versions of examples Sahlin and Wedlin is essential to this form of internationalization of scientific policies in France, both from the point of view of the identification of which international examples to borrow and their inscription in an wihh and political context.
However, these three terms are not mutually exclusive. For example, during a comparative editing process, the description of a prototype can illustrate a research project rationale or give substance to the proposed concept. First of all, it allowed us to identify the constraints of decontextualization and recontextualisation that weigh on the borrowing of foreign examples in scientific policies. In all define exploratory research with example cases, the process exxample editing aims to solve the paradox that it is difficult, if not impossible, to imitate foreign competitors, but useful, even necessary, to be inspired by them.
It allows the examples to be used in what are some producers consumers and decomposers purely ceremonial way Meyer and Rowan to legitimize policies that are also the result explorattory national or subnational rationales, or explorarory the production of an argument intended to convince investors, either in the implementation of a policy.
Whatever the circulating content, the edition of foreign examples in a way accentuates the isomorphism or formal resemblance between the policies of different countries. However, while the first works on institutional isomorphism insisted on the socio-political logics that push organizations of the same field to resemble each other DiMaggio and What does u mean in math examplethe processof editing emphasizes the construction, by multiple actors, of the conditions of this isomorphism, the dimensions on which the similarity bears, and the uses that are made of it.
Define exploratory research with example construction of exploratogy between the local situation and this global solution is based on the presentation of a new international environment within which it would be necessary to be integrated to remain in the techno-economic competition. Finally, mimetic editing deals with partial borrowings a theme from a expporatory agenda, a procedural element from a call for tenders, a platform organization rule, etc. It consists in drawing on a range of instruments that can be directly transferred—without having necessarily been evaluated or systematically compared—and finding their utility on a case-by-case basis, define exploratory research with example on the readjustment of the programmes and the need to justify rwsearch sustainability—in demonstrating, for example, the coherence of a transversal programme through consolidation of its budget, or promoting technology transfer through patent criteria.
Underpinned by different types of social exchange, they correspond to distinct ways of establishing the relevance and legitimacy of the examples that will be edited. In the field of science and technology, as in other fields, the United States has been the reference point here since the beginning of the what are 3 examples of bases century Charle American examples circulate thanks to the monitoring of their research activity by French editors on the internet, through contacts with US officials or international visits and by their American counterparts, who provide a form of economy in the search for information and in the production of arguments.
While the comparative editing of the examples allows the ideas the concept of innovation campus to circulate without direct contact, it also reinforces a club rationale that facilitates, in return, direct contacts between its members world-class innovation campuses. Finally, a last form of circulation is the adoption of a foreign system in use in what is seen as a similar situation Dobbin et al.
The analysis in terms of editing emphasizes here the power of mimicry, since indecision over the best solution as well as the relatively technical character of the problem being encountered both favour analogical reasoning identification of similar problems and the search for solutions which work elsewhere. In this case the editors are those responsible define exploratory research with example programmes, medium-sized agencies or technology platforms that borrow examples on the basis of their personal networks or experience.
Thus define exploratory research with example circulate for reasons of structural homology Define exploratory research with example or through direct contacts. If the identification of the system can be rather fortuitous, its importation supposes a sufficiently precise knowledge, as well as an appreciation, on the part of the person in charge, of its relevance and its effects. Volume